研究生英語精讀教程課文原文+翻譯+短文unit3.doc

Rats and MenInsoluble ProblemsProfessor N. R. F. Maier of the University of Michigan performed a series of experiments several years ago in which neurosis is induced in rats. The rats are first trained to jump off the edge of a platform at one of two doors.If the rat jumps to the right, the door holds fast, and it bumps its nose and falls into a net; if it jumps to the left, the door opens, and the rat finds a dish of food. When the rats are well trained to this reaction, the situation is changed. The food is put behind the other door, so that in order to get their reward they now have to jump to the right instead of to the left. (Other changes, such as marking the two doors in different ways, may also be introduced by the experimenter.)If the rat fails to figure out the new system, so that each time it jumps it never knows whether it is going to get food or bump its nose, it finally gives up and refuses to jump at all. At this stage, Dr. Maier says, Many rats prefer to starve rather than make a choice.密執(zhí)安大學的N.R.F. 麥耶教授幾年前做過一系列可以誘導鼠產生“ 神經官能癥” 的實驗。首先訓練鼠由平臺邊緣跳向兩個門中的一個。如果鼠向右跳，右門是碰不開的，那么鼠就撞了鼻子并掉進網里；如果鼠向左跳，左門就打開，鼠就會找到一碟食物。在鼠已很熟悉這一反應時，就改變情況：把食物放在另外一扇門后，這樣鼠要想得到犒賞就不能向左跳，而要向右跳了。( 實驗者也可采用其他變化形式，比如用不同的方式標記兩個門。) 如果鼠弄不懂新規(guī)則，它每次跳時決不知是會得到食物還是會撞鼻子。最終它就會放棄，拒絕再跳。到這一步，麥耶博士說：“ 許多鼠寧愿挨餓也不再做選擇。”Next, the rats are forced to make a choice, being driven to it by blasts of air or an electric shock. Animals which are induced to respond in the insoluble problem situation, says Dr. Maier, settle down to a specific reaction (such as jumping solely at the left hand door) which they continue to execute regardless of consequences.The response chosen under these conditions becomes fixated. Once the fixation appears, the animal is incapable of learning an adaptive response in this situation. When a reaction to the left-hand door is thus fixated, the right-hand door may be left open so that the food is plainly visible. Yet the rat, when pushed, continues to jump to the left, becoming more panicky each time.When the experimenter persists in forcing the rat to make choices, it may go into convulsions, racing around wildly, injuring its claws, bumping into chairs and tables, then going into a state of violent trembling, until it falls into a coma.In this passive state, it refuses to eat, refuses to take any interest in anything: it can be rolled up into a ball or suspended in the air by its legsthe rat has ceased to care what happens to it. It has had a nervous breakdown.第二步，對鼠施加強大氣流或電擊，趕它，強迫它做出選擇?！?處于不能解決的難題之中而被迫做出反應的動物，” 麥耶博士說，“ 最后總是落到一個特定的反應上( 比如只4 向左跳)，不顧結果如何都總是做出這一反應這種條件下所做出的反應便固定不變了一旦出現(xiàn)了這種固態(tài)，動物就沒有能力學會適應性的反應了?！?一旦向左跳的反應被固定下來時，可以讓右門開著，使食物呈現(xiàn)在眼前。可是鼠被驅趕時卻仍舊向左跳，并且每次都愈來愈惶恐不安。實驗者繼續(xù)迫使鼠做出選擇時，鼠開始驚厥不安，四下狂奔，弄傷爪子，撞上桌椅，然后渾身劇烈顫抖，直到昏迷不醒。處于這樣的被動情況，鼠拒絕進食，對一切不感興趣：可以把它卷成一團或擒住雙腿倒掛空中無論怎樣擺布它，它都無動于衷。這時的鼠已是“ 神經崩潰” 了。It is the insolubility of the rats problem that leads to its nervous breakdown, and, as Dr. Maier shows in his studies of disturbed children and adults, rats and human beings seem to go through pretty much the same stages. First, they are trained to make habitually a given choice when confronted by a given problem; secondly, they get a terrible shock when they find that the conditions have changed and that the choice doesnt produce the expected results;third, whether through shock, anxiety, or frustration, they may fixate on the original choice and continue to make that choice regardless of consequences; fourth, they sullenly refuse to act at all; fifth, when by external compulsion they are forced to make a choice, they again make the one they were originally trained to make - and again get a bump on the nose; finally, even with the goal visible in front of them, to be attained simply by making a different choice, they go crazy out of frustration. They tear around wildly; they sulk in corners and refuse to eat; bitter, cynical, disillusioned, they cease to care what happens to them.鼠所面臨問題的 “不可解決性 ”導致了它的神經崩潰，而麥耶博士在他對心理失常的小孩和成人的研究報告中表明，鼠和人經歷的各個階段大同小異。首先是兩者受訓練，在面對某一問題時都習慣地做出某一選擇；然后，發(fā)現(xiàn)條件已改變而原來的選擇并不能產生預期的效果時，兩者都大吃一驚；再次，不論是出于震驚、焦慮還是受挫，兩者都會執(zhí)著于最初的選擇，不管結果，一意孤行；接著，悻悻然拒絕采取行動；而后，在被迫做出選擇時，兩者又總做出最初訓練時所做出的選擇且再次碰壁；最后，即使目標就在眼前 ，只要做出不同的選擇就唾手可得時，兩者又都由于以前受到的挫折而發(fā)狂。他們瘋狂地四處撕抓；或是躲在角落里賭氣拒食；他們變得辛酸懷恨、不信任一切、心灰意冷，無論人們怎樣對待他們，他們都無動于衷。Is this an exaggerated picture? It hardly seems so. The pattern recurs throughout human life, from the small tragedies of the home to the world-shaking tragedies among nations. In order to cure her husbands faults, a wife may nag him. His faults get worse, so she nags him some more.Naturally his faults get worse still - and she nags him even more. Governed, like the rat, by a fixated reaction to the problem of her husbands faults, she can meet it only in one way. The longer she continues, the worse it gets, until they are both nervous wrecks.這是否是一幅夸張的畫面呢 ?似乎并非如此。這個模式反復再現(xiàn)于人生，小到家庭的悲劇，大到震撼世界的國家間的悲劇。為了糾正丈夫的毛病，妻子數(shù)落他。毛病越壞，就越多地挨數(shù)落。當然他的毛病變得更壞，她就更加數(shù)落。像鼠一樣，妻子對丈夫的毛病受一種固定反應的擺布，她只能總以一種方式應付它。她這么做的日子越久，丈夫的毛病就越厲害，直至夫婦二人在神經上都備受折磨，疲憊不堪。Again, white people in a northern city, deploring the illiteracy and high crime rate among Negroes, segregate them, persecute them (it is well known that the police are almost always tougher on Negro suspects than on whites),and deny them opportunities for employment and advancement.The denial of opportunity perpetuates the illiteracy and the high crime rate, which in turn perpetuate the segregation, persecution, and denial of opportunity. The search for a way to break up this vicious circle taxes the best minds among those interested in orderly social change: city councilmen, educators, urban planners, Negro organizations, as well as state governments and federal authorities.再看一個例子。北方某城市的白人因厭惡黑人高文盲率和高犯罪率的狀況而隔離他們、迫害他們 (眾所周知，警察通常對黑人嫌疑犯比對白人嫌疑犯要粗暴得多 )，并且拒絕給他們受雇與提升的機會。這種機會的被剝奪使文盲率與犯罪率高的情況得以延續(xù)下去，轉而又使隔離、迫害和不給黑人機會的做法得以繼續(xù)存在。要找到解決這一惡性循環(huán)的方法需要致力于有序社會改革的智者殫精竭慮，包括市議員、教育家、城市規(guī)劃人員、黑人組織以及州政府和聯(lián)邦政府。To cite another example, students trying to express themselves in writing may write poorly. In order to improve their writing, says the English teacher, I must teach them the fundamentals of grammar, spelling, and punctuation.By thus placing excessive emphasis on grammar and mechanics while ignoring the students ideas, the teacher quickly destroys student interest in writing. That interest destroyed, the students write even more poorly.Thereupon the teacher redoubles his dose of grammar and mechanics. The students become increasingly bored and rebellious. Such students fill the ranks of “remedial English classes in high school and college.另一個例子是，想用寫作表達自己思想的學生可能寫得很差。英文老師說，我一定要教會他們語法、拼寫和標點符號這些方面的基礎知識，來提高他們的寫作。于是由于過分強調語法與寫作方面的技術性細節(jié)而忽視了學生的思想，老師很快湮滅了學生對寫作的興趣。失去了興趣，學生寫得就更差了，老師于是再給學生以加倍的語法和寫作方法的練習。學生也就越來越厭倦和反感了。中學和大學的“英文補習”班里全是這樣的學生。Again, a nation, believing that the only way to secure peace and dignity is through armed strength, may embark on a huge armaments program. The program arouses the fears of neighboring nations, so that they too increase their armaments to match those of the first nation.Anxiety and tension increase. It is clear, the first nation declares, that we shall continue to feel anxious about our national security so long as we are not adequately prepared for all emergencies; we must therefore double our armaments. This naturally makes the neighboring nations even more anxious, so that they too double their armaments.Anxiety and tension increase even more. It is clear, the first nation declares, that our mistake has been to underestimate our defense needs. This time we must be sure to be sufficiently armed to preserve peace. We must triple our armaments.同樣，一個認為武裝力量是維護和平與尊嚴的唯一有效途徑的國家，會推行巨大的擴軍計劃。這種計劃引起鄰國的恐慌，于是后者也擴充軍備，與前者抗衡。焦慮與緊張氣氛升溫。前者宣稱，很明顯，只要我們不能對所有突發(fā)事件都有充分準備，我們就會不斷為國家的安危擔憂；所以我們必須加倍 擴軍。這自然使鄰國更為恐慌，于是也把軍備翻了一番。焦慮與緊張氣氛更強了。前者宣稱，很明顯，我們犯了低估國防需要的錯誤。這次我們一定要保證 我們有充分武力來保持和平。我們必須把軍備再加一倍 Of course these instances are oversimplified, but it is often because of vicious circles of this kind that we are unable to get at or do anything about the conditions that lead to disaster. The pattern is frequently recognizable; the goal may be in sight, attainable by a mere change in methods.Nevertheless, governed by fixated reactions, the rat cannot get food, the wife cannot cure her husbands faults, Negroes will have to wait two or three generations until the time is ripe for social change, and we cannot afford to stop devising and manufacturing weapons so deadly that they cannot be used without destroying civilization itself.當然，這些例子難免過于簡單化，但是確實常常由于這種類似的惡性循環(huán)使我們無法認清或處理導致災難的不測事件的條件。這樣的模式常常很容易識別；目標就在眼前，只要在方法上做些改變就會達到。可是，由于受到固定反應的擺布，鼠“無法”吃到食物，妻子“無法”改掉丈夫的毛病，黑人還要等兩三代人的時間，“直到社會改革的時機成熟”，我們“無法”停止發(fā)明并制造可摧毀人類文明的致命武器。There is, however, an important difference between the insolubility of the rats problems and the insolubility of human problems. Dr. Maiers rats were driven to their nervous breakdowns by problems more complicated than would naturally occur in a rats environment. But human breakdowns are ordinarily caused by problems that human beings themselves have created:problems of religious and ethical belief; problems of money and credit and mortgages and trust funds and stock market fluctuations; problems of man-made custom and etiquette and social organization and law.不過，鼠與人的難題的不可解決性之間有一個重要的區(qū)別。麥耶博士的鼠遇到的難題比它在自然狀態(tài)下能遇上的復雜得多，它是被逼迫至神經崩潰的。而人類的神經崩潰一般總是由于人類自己制造的難題所造成：如宗教與道德信仰的問題，金錢、貸款、抵押、托管基金、股市漲跌的問題，人為的習慣、禮節(jié)、社會團體和法律的問題，等等。Rats can hardly be blamed for not being able to solve problems set for them by Dr. Maier; there are limits to a rats powers of abstraction. But there are no known limits to the human capacity to abstract and organize and make use of abstractions. Hence, if human beings find problems insoluble because of fixated reactions - if they are frustrated because they can respond in only one way, regardless of context or circumstances, to certain symbolically defined situations - they are functioning at less than full human capacity.They can be said, in Korzybskis suggestive phrase, to be copying animals in their reactions. Wendell Johnson summarized this idea aptly when he said, To a mouse, cheese is cheese; thats why mouse traps work. How do these fixations occur in human beings?不能責怪鼠解決不了麥耶博士為它們設下的難題；因為鼠的抽象能力有限。但人類的抽象能力、組織和利用抽象的能力是無限的。因此，如果人由于固定反應而認為難題不可解決如果人受挫折只是由于對某些以符號來界定的形勢，不論其前因后果或出于環(huán)境只能采取一種反應的話那么，人便沒有充分發(fā)揮出其全部人的能力。如科爾奇布斯基所說的意味深長的話：此時，人在做出反應這一點上是在“模仿動物”。對此，溫德爾約翰遜有一貼切的歸納：“對鼠而言，奶酪就是奶酪；這就是捕鼠器能捕鼠的原因?！笨蛇@種固定反應是如何在人類中發(fā)生的呢?Supplementary ReadingIn the 1940s, psychologist Abraham Maslow recognized that workers perform as they do in order to satisfy a wide variety of needs. He realized that these needs would have to be classified to explain motion. The model he worked out is called Maslows ladder. Two principles underlie this model: A human being is an animal with many needs, and only those needs not yet fully satisfied cause a person to act. When needs on a lower level are satisfied, at least in part, the rung above becomes a goal a person will strive to reach. With these principles in mind, let us now take a look at each set of needs depicted in the model.All the basic drives that sustain lifefood, clothing and shelterare called physiological needs. A person must satisfy these needs before pursuing any other objective. Most people, of course, strongly desire more than the minimum level of satisfaction required for survival:They want three meals a day instead of one and a house instead of a hut.The physiological needs are readily satisfied in modern societies by money. Even the few pennies earned by nineteenth-century laborers were strong motivation to people who had not eaten for several days. They would suffer almost any abuse to collect them and live another day.People have a strong desire to feel protected. Usually this means protection against loss of the physical necessities, the idea of cushion against misfortune. Once more, money will effectively satisfy this level of need. Even today few peole succeed in earning enough money to feel completely secure. This is why the classical theory of motivation held on so long.Business now does a reasonably good job of meeting the workers demands for safety. Wages are high enough to allow most workers to save for a rainy day. Guaranteed job security, pension plans, health insurance, life insurance, and employer contributions to Social Security are all examples of direct satisfaction of safety needs.Humans are social animals. Their desires to associate with others and to be loved by others are nearly as strong as their will to survive. Indeed, even when the need for safety is not totally satisfied, people begin feeling social needs.This is the first level of needs that money cannot readily satisfy.As the Hawthorne Studies clearly showed, workers desire to be accepted by co-workers could motivate them more strongly than the desire to earn more money. Furthermore, workers need no impetus from management to seek satisfaction of their social needs. It is this drive that gives rise to the informal organization.People need to feel self-esteem, a sense of personal worth derived from their competence, achievement, or independence. They also need the respect of others, a respect based on a recognition of their competence rather than on friendship (a social need). The need for esteem is closely tied to the idea of status.Status is ones rank in comparison with others in the same social group. A person with high status is one who is well regarded by friends and associates. Several factors can give a person high status in society. These include wealth, social standing, advanced education, and a prestigious occupation. We are all familiar with status symbols such as a Cadillac or a mansion. Since these familiar symbols of status all cost money, it is common to mistake a striving for status as a drive to accumulate wealth. While earning a million dollars may indeed bestow status on an individual, a person motivated by esteem needs seeks the status, not the money.People in business often seek satisfaction of their esteem needs by pursuing a promotion. To some individuals, the status conferred by the title “vice-president” is more important than the salary that also comes with the job. Of course, people also manifest the need for esteem when they seek one of the occupations that our society holds in high esteem, such as physician, writer, artist, actor, university professor, lawyer, or musician.Maslow defined the need for self-realization as the desire to become more what one is, to become everything one is capable of. A person who operates on this level usually views work as something to be done in order to f