capitalfanyi第一部分完

1、二、社會(huì)資本的類型及功能目前，關(guān)于社會(huì)資本的分類主要有兩大方法。一種是以馬斯·福特·布朗( Brown，1997) 為代表的層次分類法，他認(rèn)為社會(huì)資本系統(tǒng)可以按照“要素、結(jié)構(gòu)和環(huán)境”的三維概念，劃分為微觀、中觀和宏觀三個(gè)層面: 微觀社會(huì)資本主要是個(gè)人形成的價(jià)值觀念和規(guī)范等; 中觀層次的社會(huì)資本是集團(tuán)間所形成的信任、互惠、義務(wù)和期望等; 宏觀社會(huì)資本體現(xiàn)為國(guó)家制度、法律框架、公民權(quán)利以及社會(huì)凝聚力8。另外一種較為普遍的分類是以Uphoff ( 1996) 為代表的二維分類法，他將社會(huì)資本劃分為結(jié)構(gòu)型社會(huì)資本和認(rèn)知型社會(huì)資本，結(jié)構(gòu)型社會(huì)資本是指社會(huì)資本中有形的方面，如影響人們交

2、互行為的網(wǎng)絡(luò)、規(guī)則、程序、制度、組織等; 認(rèn)知型社會(huì)資本主要是無(wú)形的，如共同的價(jià)值觀念、互惠、信任和聲望等9。以上兩大分類方法雖然依據(jù)不同，但都強(qiáng)調(diào)了社會(huì)資本中的網(wǎng)絡(luò)、信任、聲望、合作。基于前文關(guān)于社會(huì)資本內(nèi)涵的討論，從社會(huì)資本構(gòu)成的角度可以把社會(huì)資本分為四種基本類型: 即網(wǎng)絡(luò)型社會(huì)資本、信任型社會(huì)資本、聲望型社會(huì)資本和參與型社會(huì)資本。網(wǎng)絡(luò)型社會(huì)資本是指社會(huì)成員形成的關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)規(guī)模、網(wǎng)絡(luò)密度及他們?cè)诰W(wǎng)絡(luò)中的地位; 信任型社會(huì)資本是指?jìng)€(gè)體間形成的信任以及個(gè)體對(duì)組織的信任程度; 聲望型社會(huì)資本即在網(wǎng)絡(luò)關(guān)系和合作行為中長(zhǎng)期形成的權(quán)威關(guān)系以及人們的互惠規(guī)范; 參與型社會(huì)資本主要指組織成員中集體活動(dòng)參與程

3、度。盡管社會(huì)資本有不同的類型，但社會(huì)資本實(shí)質(zhì)上是一種重要的生產(chǎn)要素，對(duì)人們經(jīng)濟(jì)生活和社會(huì)發(fā)展起著重要的作用，具有多重功能。首先，社會(huì)資本具有社會(huì)功能。社會(huì)資本的社會(huì)功能主要體現(xiàn)在生活保障、經(jīng)濟(jì)支持、精神支持和維護(hù)社會(huì)秩序上。人們形成特定的關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)，可以相互幫助，給貧困的人們提供一定的生活保障和經(jīng)濟(jì)支持; 在交往過(guò)程中，人們借助于彼此間的信任關(guān)系和對(duì)規(guī)范、制度的共同遵守，不僅提供物質(zhì)支持，還給弱者供給情感、精神上的支持和安慰。此外，社會(huì)資本的形成促進(jìn)了社區(qū)人們的協(xié)調(diào)與合作，增強(qiáng)歸屬感，壓制了社會(huì)犯罪等不良的社會(huì)行為，對(duì)社區(qū)治安有重要作用; 同時(shí)，社會(huì)資本增進(jìn)了人們對(duì)政治生活的參與，保證了社會(huì)的有

4、序運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)。其次，社會(huì)資本具有經(jīng)濟(jì)功能，社會(huì)資本的經(jīng)濟(jì)功能體現(xiàn)在多個(gè)方面。1 促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展。不少學(xué)者認(rèn)為在社會(huì)網(wǎng)絡(luò)中，成員間頻繁交流可以減少因信息不完全而帶來(lái)的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)和不確定性，利用個(gè)體的社會(huì)關(guān)系及其信任，利用組織的社會(huì)聲望和納入公民參與可以替代契約，降低交易成本，利于提高經(jīng)濟(jì)績(jī)效，實(shí)現(xiàn)經(jīng)濟(jì)的繁榮和發(fā)展。Grootaert ( 2002) 認(rèn)為社會(huì)資本與經(jīng)濟(jì)發(fā)展之間有正相關(guān)關(guān)系10; 張其仔( 1997) 從社會(huì)網(wǎng)絡(luò)的角度出發(fā)，探討社會(huì)資本與經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)等的關(guān)系，認(rèn)為社會(huì)資本促進(jìn)經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)11。2 解決集體行為困境。在公共產(chǎn)品領(lǐng)域存在“搭便車行為”、“哈丁悲劇”和“囚徒困境”等集體供給矛盾，奧斯特羅姆(

5、Ostrom，2000) 將社會(huì)資本引入到集體選擇理論中，證實(shí)了通過(guò)自發(fā)形成的社會(huì)資本能夠?qū)⒎稚⒌霓r(nóng)戶聚集起來(lái)，解決集體供給行為困境的問(wèn)題12。社會(huì)資本的個(gè)人社會(huì)關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)、信任和聲望促進(jìn)了信息的流動(dòng)，降低了交易風(fēng)險(xiǎn)性，減少了機(jī)會(huì)主義和搭便車行為，增加交易機(jī)會(huì)，提高合作供給效率。3 社會(huì)資本能夠促進(jìn)人力資本再生產(chǎn)，增加人力資本的收益。網(wǎng)絡(luò)成員通過(guò)資源長(zhǎng)期互利形成一種合作和信任，這為人們獲取教育和就業(yè)等提供更多的機(jī)會(huì)，對(duì)人力資本的再生產(chǎn)有著積極的作用，這種人力資本的投資收益主要表現(xiàn)在健康、勞動(dòng)力職業(yè)地位的獲得等方面。張智勇( 2007) 認(rèn)為社會(huì)資本可以減少遷移的心理成本，可以縮短農(nóng)民工尋找工作的

6、時(shí)間，得出社會(huì)資本對(duì)農(nóng)民工就業(yè)有積極作用13?？梢?jiàn)，社會(huì)資本提高了人力資本收益率。4 社會(huì)資本有利于增加居民收入，提高居民的福利水平。居民累積的社會(huì)資本可以強(qiáng)化社會(huì)交往和信息交流，長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的交往利于居民間信任的建立。這種社會(huì)資本給居民帶來(lái)一定的資源和利益，如就業(yè)信息提供、貸款支持等，有助于增加居民的收入，同時(shí)提高居民的福利水平。Naravan等( 1999) 通過(guò)對(duì)坦桑尼亞的一些鄉(xiāng)村進(jìn)行調(diào)查，測(cè)量農(nóng)民參與組織的社會(huì)資本發(fā)現(xiàn)社會(huì)資本對(duì)家庭收入有正影響14。黃瑞芹等( 2008) 經(jīng)過(guò)實(shí)證分析，得出中國(guó)農(nóng)村社會(huì)資本對(duì)農(nóng)戶家庭收入有顯著正影響15。趙劍治( 2010) 認(rèn)為家庭的社會(huì)關(guān)系網(wǎng)絡(luò)對(duì)農(nóng)村居民

7、收入差距具有很大的貢獻(xiàn)16。三、社會(huì)資本的度量因社會(huì)資本內(nèi)涵豐富，具有多維特征，目前學(xué)術(shù)界爭(zhēng)議頗多，且社會(huì)資本表現(xiàn)為一種隱含的資本，較難用明確的顯性指標(biāo)直接進(jìn)行度量。所以，關(guān)于社會(huì)資本的度量一直是理論界面臨的一個(gè)難題。如科爾曼III、the measurement of social capital.Because social capital, with multiple features, has abundant implications, it has been controversial among theorists. Besides that social capital act

8、 as a kind of invisible capital, it is hard to be measured by obvious norms directly. Hence, it has been a difficulty among theorists to measure social capital. Personal network analysis is the most popular method to measure social capital, including the nomination method and position generating met

9、hod. The nomination method is a kind of census of the group and group members in one society, through the information of the networks members provided by the respondents, to study social capital. Position generating method is according to the positions of respondents in the network to analyze social

10、 capital. However, all these methods have great uncertainty in the material collection. Social capital need to be transformed into a series of practical measurable indicators to measure itself. Different scholars selected various indicators according to their own experience and research aim, due to

11、the differences in the understanding of the connotation of social capital. For example, Colman measured social capital starting from the individual perspective, through social networks relationship, social membership, homogeneity and heterogeneity. Putnam expanded the scope of the study. Based on th

12、e community perspective, community organizational life, participation in public affairs, community volunteer activities, informal social contact and trust these five indicators were adopted to measure social capital.Scholars express their own views about social capitals implication, focusing on diff

13、erent research aims and emphasizing differently, which is mainly on one dimension or few dimensions of social capital, leading to different measurements. for the establishment of index selection, it is mainly devoted to certain aspects of social capital index system, from single level or a few level

14、s to measure it. The mutual connection between the dimensions was ignored, so it is hard to grasp social capitals measurement from the overall integrity of the index system, with the lack of a comprehensive system. The author thinks that the measurement of social capital needs to start from the soci

15、al networks, social trust, social prestige and social participation these four dimensions, to establish a comprehensive index system with these four aspects.當(dāng)然，社會(huì)資本是一個(gè)復(fù)雜的系統(tǒng)，如何科學(xué)合理的衡量社會(huì)資本存量還有待進(jìn)一步的探索和完善。Of course, the social capital is a complex system, and how to scientifically and rationally measure

16、 its stock still needs further exploration and improvement.四、進(jìn)一步深入研究的領(lǐng)域盡管社會(huì)資本的內(nèi)涵尚存爭(zhēng)議，社會(huì)資本的度量指標(biāo)難以統(tǒng)一，但社會(huì)資本這一概念的強(qiáng)大的解釋力，使它成為眾多學(xué)科的熱門概念和分析經(jīng)濟(jì)社會(huì)現(xiàn)象的重要工具。未來(lái)對(duì)社會(huì)資本的研究會(huì)逐漸深入，主要體現(xiàn)在以下方面。1 社會(huì)資本的作用機(jī)理。一個(gè)社會(huì)的社會(huì)資本狀況直接影響著成員的個(gè)體行為和集體行為，也會(huì)影響社會(huì)的運(yùn)行機(jī)制和治理模式。社會(huì)資本將分散的、擁有一定資源的個(gè)體通過(guò)一定的網(wǎng)絡(luò)關(guān)系結(jié)合在一起，在網(wǎng)絡(luò)中他們之間相互交流、合作和協(xié)調(diào)，優(yōu)化共享配置資源，最終使個(gè)人理性與社會(huì)理

17、性、個(gè)人利益與社會(huì)利益有機(jī)地統(tǒng)一起來(lái)。因此，研究彼此間的內(nèi)在機(jī)理及相互作用關(guān)系，探索不同類型的社會(huì)資本對(duì)人們行為的影響，解釋社會(huì)資本與經(jīng)濟(jì)增長(zhǎng)、社會(huì)發(fā)展、文化傳統(tǒng)的關(guān)系，對(duì)現(xiàn)實(shí)生活具有重要的理論意義。IV. the further research fieldAlthough the social capitals implication and measurement indicators are still controversial, the powerful explanation of social capital, make it as an important tool to a

18、nalyze social economic phenomena and be the popular concepts among various subjects. In the future, the research on social capital will be gradually in-depth, mainly reflected in the following aspects.1.the action mechanism of social capitalThe social capital of a society directly affects the indivi

19、dual behaviors and collective behaviors of members, which will also affect the operation mechanism and the governance model of the society. Social capital incorporate individuals together that are dispersed and have certain resources through certain network relationship. In the network, they contact

20、, cooperate and coordinate mutually, optimizing and sharing the allocation of resources, to ultimately enable the individual rationality, social rationality, personal benefits and social benefits as an organic unity. Therefore, the research on internal mechanism of the mutual relationship and intera

21、ction, exploring the effects of different types of social capital on human behaviors, to explain the relationship among social capital, economic growth, social development and cultural tradition, have important theoretical significance to real life.2 社會(huì)資本度量方法的創(chuàng)新。首先社會(huì)資本更多的牽涉到了情感和主觀因素，這些因素難以量化，需要尋找可定量

22、的替代性指標(biāo)進(jìn)行實(shí)證分析，為測(cè)度社會(huì)資本提供更為科學(xué)的依據(jù)。此外，社會(huì)資本因國(guó)家背景和內(nèi)涵迥異，研究目標(biāo)和分析層次不同，而選取了不同的衡量指標(biāo)。經(jīng)濟(jì)研究的終極目標(biāo)是發(fā)現(xiàn)一貫的普遍性規(guī)律，從錯(cuò)綜復(fù)雜、形態(tài)各異的世界中抽取社會(huì)資本的核心因素，建立具有全面性、普遍性和系統(tǒng)性的指標(biāo)衡量社會(huì)資本是今后研究的目標(biāo)。3 不同主體的社會(huì)資本特征。社會(huì)資本隨著環(huán)境變化、人們所處的階層差異、人們所占有的資源及形成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)關(guān)系不同而有所不同，其信任、聲望和參與各有特色。對(duì)社會(huì)資本的研究需要考察不同環(huán)境下個(gè)體層次、集體層次或社會(huì)層次的社會(huì)資本。尤其是在人情味很濃的中國(guó)，社會(huì)資本有很強(qiáng)的地緣、血緣和宗族關(guān)聯(lián)，這就需要從本

23、土視角分析社會(huì)資本。然后，考察包括個(gè)人、企業(yè)和社區(qū)在內(nèi)的不同的主體的社會(huì)資本特征，找到他們的內(nèi)在差異，為研究社會(huì)資本提供一個(gè)更為清晰的邏輯思路。4 社會(huì)資本的動(dòng)態(tài)研究?，F(xiàn)有研究?jī)A向于從靜態(tài)的角度分析社會(huì)資本的相關(guān)內(nèi)容，而對(duì)社會(huì)資本的動(dòng)態(tài)研究不足。社會(huì)資本是擁有資源的人們集結(jié)成的網(wǎng)絡(luò)關(guān)系，這種網(wǎng)絡(luò)不是固定不變的，而是隨著時(shí)間的推移、環(huán)境的變遷和成員心理的變化而不斷變化的。在網(wǎng)絡(luò)形成、發(fā)展和完善階段_社會(huì)資本呈現(xiàn)出不同的特征，同時(shí)社會(huì)變遷也會(huì)對(duì)社會(huì)資本造成影響，因此在現(xiàn)代化進(jìn)程中，從發(fā)展的角度看待社會(huì)資本問(wèn)題需要深入分析轉(zhuǎn)型中的社會(huì)資本更新問(wèn)題。信息時(shí)代下互聯(lián)網(wǎng)對(duì)社會(huì)資本構(gòu)建的作用。隨著互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的廣

24、泛使用，社會(huì)資本不再局限于個(gè)體間有形的網(wǎng)，已經(jīng)外延到計(jì)算機(jī)網(wǎng)絡(luò)這張無(wú)形的網(wǎng)中。這種傳播速度快、應(yīng)用范圍廣、普及程度高的網(wǎng)絡(luò)媒介從一定程度上促進(jìn)了社會(huì)資本的擴(kuò)張和更新，為研究社會(huì)資本提供了一個(gè)更為寬廣的空間。因此，將互聯(lián)網(wǎng)納入考察體系，研究互聯(lián)網(wǎng)在社會(huì)資本構(gòu)建中的作用，有著重要的現(xiàn)實(shí)意義，充分體現(xiàn)與時(shí)俱進(jìn)。Social capital is a interdisciplinary field of social science and economics, about which, the theorists have differences implications. Clarifying t

25、he concept of social capital, grasping the implication of social capital is the premise and foundation of the research social capital.Social capital was proposed by LydaHanifan(1916) initially, who believed that social capital is the sense of compassion, kindness, compatriots, and social interaction

26、,relationship composing social unit groups and families. Lyda Hanifan defined social capital mainly from the angle of sociology, emphasizing that social capital is the relationship between the individual and the family composition, which has characteristics of obtaining resources and meeting needs.

27、Social capital was firstly introduced to economic analysis by Loury(1977) who gave the definition of social capital is “the social connection, emerged spontaneously, of promoting and helping obtain the valuable skills or traits among people from the market. ” The implications from Loury and Lyda Han

28、ifan both emphasized that social capital is a kind of social connection and the members of society are beneficiaries of this connection net. However, Loury confined the implication of social connections member, who has some kinks of natural endowments. Great interests of scholars have been attracted

29、 by the different explanation of social capital. The research scope of social capital was expanded greatly ,not only to explain various phenomena ,but also widely used in the economis field. Nonetheless, different scholars have different views and understanding of social capital, because of the diff

30、erences of study purposes and levels. The current definition of social capital can be summarized as follows:1.The theory of social connection.Some scholars consider the social capital is a kind of social network, which mainly exists among individuals, occupying and exploring the resources of the net

31、work as its essential representation form.The typical representative of this theory is a French scholar, Bourdieu (1997)，who hold the view that social capital is one kind of actual or potential resources aggregation, which has a close relationship with the occupying of some kind of lasting network.

32、This connection network, systematized, is got familiar and recognized by every member, who own these resources. This theory that social connection network, composed by society members, supply members with useful resources. Therefore, the key of social capital is the link embedded by the members who

33、own the special resources. This link needs certain resources as the basis, maintaining itself by inner trust relationship formed by frequent exchange.2.The theory of social trust.Some scholars believe that the trust is a key element of social capital, rooted in the social network, becoming the impor

34、tant link to realize the goal of the network. The typical representatives of this theory is Putnanm and Fukuyama .Putnam(2001) considered that “Social capital ,the organizational network, composed by a series of trust, networks, and regulations , can promote collective cooperation and then improve t

35、he work efficiency. ” He emphasized the importance of trust, indicating that the inherent mechanism of cooperative behavior formed by citizen trust. The more trust among citizens, the more likely to achieve cooperative behavior. Fukuyama expanded concept made by Putnam, from the perspective of commu

36、nity, indicating that social capital, based on the community tradition, is established as informal values and norms to be shared among the society members. The cooperation behavior was promoted because its convergence would generate trust to others. Ultimately, social capital embodies the trust from

37、 the network members. At the same time, the trust broke the individual constraints, and can be extended to the range of community, meanwhile the cooperative behaviors are more likely to be generated with the trust among members.3.The theory of authority relationColeman considered that social capital

38、 is the capital property, owned personally, of which the social structure resources are features. Social capital is composed of various elements of social structure, existing in the structure of interpersonal relationship, in which, people transfer a part of personal rights to get exchange for contr

39、olling others resources. He emphasized that the authority relation of people controlling resources is the form of social capital, which is based on the exchange between the long term trust and resources, being the domination to resources by people. Therefore, social capital exist in the structured i

40、nterpersonal relations firstly, in which the concrete manifestation is the own and control to the resources. The person ,who have more resources to control , has more rights to speak and set up more authorities, which affect others behaviors and attitudes and help people acquire more resources. It a

41、lso can be concluded that social capital is the authority relation formed through the mutual control and owned resources among relation network members. 4.The theory of social participation Some scholars consider that the importance of social capitals implication is the social participation. More im

42、portantly, as a kind of social resources, social capital acts on the political and economic life, through participations of different individuals and groups. Burts(2000) confined the social capital as “the capital of individuals acquire scarce resources form networks or other wider social structures

43、, through their membership. This acquiring ability is a kind of capital among the relations of people, which is the result of embedment , other than being inherent. ” In his train of thought, two constrains as “the mutually beneficial expectation” and “the enforceable trust” is supplied by existing

44、structure, which enable everyone obtain some kind of membership, through “the rational embedment” and “the structural embedment”. This embedment is one kind of social participation integrating different members into the whole organization.Although foreign scholars have different emphases when graspi

45、ng the implication of social capital, they all consider social resources as the carrier of social capital, functioning based on some relation networks, in which every individual own their location and field according to their owned resources. From a broader sense, trust, formed by mutual frequent in

46、teraction among members of social capital networks, has created the relationship of reputation and constrain, so that members can distribute the scarce resources. Therefore, the function basement of social capital is network resources and the trust, reputation, and participation is the essential ele

47、ments of social capital. First of all, social capital exists in some kind of relation networks. Social capital is a network relationship composed of one or more than two people, in which every member has field of his own and occupy some resources, combining together to achieve the goal.Second, “the

48、relation of trust” is the essential element of social capital, found based on the trust formed by the frequent interaction of people. By virtue of this trust, agreement is achieved easily among people and the efficiency of realizing the goal is enhanced.The third one is that the authority relation,

49、formed by social capital, has the control power to the resources and create a kind of social reputation in the long term development of interpersonal relationship. Because of resources occupied by their own, in the network node of interpersonal relationship, the worship and recognition to the authority through the trust formed