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1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)專心專注專業(yè)精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔傾情為你奉上專心專注專業(yè)1. Think of three or four telegraphic sentences that a young child might produce. These may be in English or another language you know well. How are these little sentences similar to those in the adult language? How are they different? “telegraph

2、ic” sentences：（1）I can see a cow repeated as See cow（2）I having this. Im having nana. （3）Baby fall downSimilarities: They both contain the necessary key words, especially nouns, verbs and adjectivesDifferences: “Telegraphic” sentences lack function words like prepositions and conjunctions. They are

3、shorter, and grammatical elements are often omitted or inserted incorrectly, and they are single clauses.Researchers have used both longitudinal and cross-sectional approaches to investigate the order of acquisition of grammatical morphemes in English by young children. Describe these approaches in

4、your own words. What are the challenges and the potential benefits of each?Cross-sectional approaches: A research method studies subjects at different ages and stages of development.Longitudinal studies: It is a type of observational study. By longitudinal studies, we mean that we can study learners

5、 language with a period of time, one month, one year, or more. This contrasts with Cross-sectional studies.The challenges of longitudinal study approaches: They are time-consuming and money-consuming. Also, they are not convenient. Potential benefits of longitudinal study approaches: Longitudinal st

6、udies track the same people, and therefore the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations. The challenges of Cross-sectional approaches: Routine data are not designed to answer the specific question. Potential benefits of Cross-se

7、ctional approaches: . The use of routinely collected data allows large cross-sectional studies to be made at little or no expense.What is the wug test? What do the findings from the wug test tell us aboutChildrens developing language? What advantages does the wug test have over studies that observe

8、childrens language in natural settings? Can you think of some disadvantages?(1) “Wug test” is a procedure to explore childrens knowledge of language developed by Jean Berko Gleason. It was designed as a way to investigate the acquisition of the plural and other inflectional morphemes in English-spea

9、king children. (2) By the age of three-and-a-half or four years, most children can ask questions, give commands, report real events, and create stories about imaginary ones-complete with correct grammatical morphemes.(3) Advantages of wug test By completing these sentences, children demonstrate that

10、 they actually know the rules in English, not just a list of memorized word pairs, and can apply these rules to words which they have never heard before.(4)Some disadvantages: The acquisition of the more complex grammatical structures of the language requires a different sort of explanation4. What i

11、s metalinguistic awareness? Why is it a prerequisite for being able to understand most jokes and riddles? Think of a joke or riddle you know. How is metalinguistic awareness related to your understanding of what makes this joke funny? (1) Metalinguistic awareness is the ability to treat language as

12、an object, separate from the meaning it conveys. Because Metalinguistic awareness includes the discovery of such things as ambiguitywords and sentences that have multiple meaning.Jokes: Why is the bride feeling unhappy in her wedding? Because she cannot marry the best man.5. What have researchers ob

13、served about the frequency with which young children engage in imitation and repetitive practice? In what way are young childrens linguistic imitation and practice patterns different from those of some foreign language classes?(1) Observation: First year, most babies can understand quite a few frequ

14、ently repeated words. Speech consists of imitation, but different children have different rate of imitation Childrens imitations are not random; they do not imitate everything they hear Children sometimes repeat themselves or produce a series of related practice sentences(2) Differences: Linguistic

15、imitation and practice patterns are the natural process in which children subconsciously possess and develop the linguistic knowledge of the setting they live in. Young children learn language through exposure to the language and meaningful communication. Foreign language classes take place where th

16、e target language is not the language spoken in the language community. Children have the need of systematic studies of any kind.6. Give examples of both grammatical and lexical overgeneralization errors found in early child language. What is the general learning principle that underlies such errors

17、?Examples of grammatical overgeneralization errors： Randall (2, 9), who is in stage 3 of question formation, concluded that the trick of asking questions is to put a certain word (in this case: are) at the beginning of the sentence. for example: Are dogs wiggle their tails？Correct form: Do dogs wigg

18、le their tails? Examples of lexical overgeneralization errors: Michel (2, 0) says: Mummy, Im hiccing up and I cant stop. (Michel has heard many two-word verbs with up, such as standing up and picking up. So he makes such a generalization.)The general learning principle that underlies such errors:Chi

19、ldren appear to pick out patterns and then generalize them to new contexts. They create new forms or new uses of words until they finally figure out how the forms are used by adults. Their new sentences are usually comprehensible and often correct.Behaviorism in first language learning.7. How do the

20、 stories of Victor and Genie (pages 1921) support the critical period hypothesis? Do you find this evidence convincing? Why do most researchers consider that the evidence from users of American Sign Language that was collected by Newport and her colleagues (page 21) is stronger support for the CPH?(

21、1) Victor and Genie are children who have been deprived of contact with language in their early years. Their language acquisition device was stimulated too late. As a result, even though they were taught to speak when they were 12 or 13 years old they CANNOT learn language like normal people and the

22、ir language development was abnormal. So the stories of Victor and Genie support the critical period hypothesis. (2) It is difficult to argue that the hypothesis is confirmed on the basis of evidence from such unusual children and the unknown circumstances of their early lives. We cannot know what o

23、ther factors besides biological maturity might have contributed to their inability to learn language. Therefore, this evidence is not convincing (3) These users of American Sign Language are usual children who acquire their first language at different ages. They come from loving homes, yet do not re

24、ceive exposure to language at the usual time. Besides, the circumstances of their early lives are known to the researchers. They begin learning ASL often when they start attending a residential school where sign language is used for day-to-day communication. Moreover, in the study, there were three

25、distinct groups of ASL users: Native signers who were exposed to sign language from birth, Early learners whose first exposure to ASL began at ages four to six at school, and Late learners who first came into contact with ASL after the age of 12. Results of the research showed that the Native group

26、outperformed the Early learner group who outperformed the late learner group on tests focusing on grammatical markers. The study supports the hypothesis that there is a critical period for first language learning. 8. How are Piagets and Vygotskys views of first language acquisition similar? How do t

27、hey differ?Similarities: (1) Both of them thought that interaction played a very important role in language development;(2) Children are active learners;(3) Development declines with ageDifferences: Piaget hypothesized Childrens cognitive development would partly determine how they use language!(2)V

28、ygotsky believed that Language develops entirely from social interaction.9. What was unusual about Jims exposure to language? How does this case support an interactionist perspective on language acquisition?Unusual:(1)Jim, the hearing children of deaf parents, had little contract with hearing/speaki

29、ng adults up to the age of three years and nine months. (2)His only contract with oral language was through TV.(3)His parents did not use sign language with JimSupport: (1) Interactionism focus on the role of the linguistic environment in interaction with the childs innate capacities in determining

30、language development. And Vygotsky thought was essentially internalized speech, and speech emerged in social interaction.(2) Jims only contract with oral language was through TV, which cannot give immediate adjustment for the needs of Jim. But when Jim began conversations with sessions with an adult

31、, his expressive abilities began to improve. By the age of four years and two months, most of the unusual speech patterns had disappeared, replaced by structures more typical of Jims age. 10. State the Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis (CAH) and explain why it is often linked to the behaviourist theor

32、y. What are its limitations? (1) The CAH was put forward by Dr. Robert Lado and it predicts that where there are similarities between the first and second language, the learner will acquire second language structures with ease; where there are differences, the learner will have difficulty (2) The CA

33、H is based on the behaviouristic psychology. It holds that language development is viewed as the formation of habits; it is assumed that a person learning a second language starts off with the habits formed in the first language and that these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second

34、 language. (3) Limitations: I. Not all errors predicted by CAH are actually made. II. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of the CAH. III. Only a few errors made during the second language learning attributes to the interferences of the mother tongue. VI. It on

35、ly focuses on making comparisons between the mother tongue and the second language in terms of phonology and syntax, ignoring the comparisons in semantics, vocabulary, and pragmatics. V. Except from the mother tongue, the national culture also influences the second language learning.11. What contrib

36、ution has behaviourism made to our understanding of how languages are learned? What is the theory not able to explain? (1). I. Behaviourists account for learning in terms of imitation, practice, reinforcement, (or feedback on success), and habit formation. II. All learning takes place through the sa

37、me underlying processes.III. Learners receive linguistic input from speakers in their environment and they form association between words and objects or events. IV. Learners receive encouragement for their correct imitations and corrective feedback on their errors. V. Learners start off with the hab

38、its formed in the first language while learning a second language and these habits interfere with the new ones needed for the second language. (2).I. Where there are differences between the first language and the target language, the learners will have difficulty. II. Not all errors predicted by it

39、are actually made. Many of the errors which learners do make are not predictable on the basis of it. III. Many of the sentences produced by second language learners would be quite ungrammatical in their first language. Some characteristics of these simple structures are very similar across learners

40、from a variety of backgrounds.IV. The learners first language may not simply be a matter of the transfer of habits.12. Sum up, in your own words, the main points surrounding the debate about the nature and availability of UG in SLA. Where do you stand?UG is not suitable for explaining second languag

41、e acquisition. (1) UG is suitable for acquiring language during a critical period; it is not available for second language learners who have passed the critical period. (Even if it may be present and available, its exact nature has been changed.) (2) Formal instruction and error correction will not

42、affect the learners knowledge of second language. (3) Instead of UG, many different theories might be vital to explain some early language performance.UG is suitable for explaining second language acquisition. (1) There is still a logical problem of second language acquisition, which also appears in

43、 mother language learning, even if learners begin learning a second language after the critical period. (2) Second language learners need both formal instruction and error correction or they will be affected by their first language. (3) UG is necessary to explain learners knowledge of complex syntax

44、. My stand:Although it doesnt cover all aspects, UG has exactly explained second language acquisition to some extent.(logical problem, error correction, etc.) 13. Name the five hypotheses that make up Krashens Monitor Model. According to this model, what conditions must be present for acquisition to

45、 take place? What are the conditions for language learning?1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis. 2. The monitor hypothesis. 3. The natural order hypothesis. 4. The input hypothesis. 5. The affective filter hypothesis.What conditions must be present for acquisition to take place? Meaningful interac

46、tion in the target language. Exposure to adequate and comprehensible input: i+1.What are the conditions for language learning?According to Krashen, for the Monitor to be successfully used, three conditions must be met: The learner must master the knowledge of rules. The learner must be focused on co

47、rrectness The learner must have sufficient time to use the monitor 14. What are the limitations of Krashens theory? Why do you think that Krashens ideas have been so influential in second- and foreign-language education?Limitation 1. Difficulties to define -Whether acquisition and learning are inter

48、changeable is not clear; -The definition of Acquisition and Learning are not clear. 2. Lack of empirical evidence Its difficult to show the evidence of monitor use; we dont know what is produced by acquire system or monitor use; The natural order comes from “morpheme studies”, which is criticized by

49、 other experts; Input hypothesis has not been substantiated by empirical studies; It is difficult to be sure that affective factors cause the differences in language acquisition;Why Monitor Model is so influential?It appears to have immediate implications for classroom practice; It appeals intuitive

50、ly to those who have tried unsuccessfully to learn a language in conditions where they felt stressed or uncomfortable;The cognitive perspective15. How does information-processing model explain SLA?Information processing is the change of information in any manner detectable by an observer. It is a pr

51、ocess which describes everything which happens in the universe, from the falling of a rock (a change in position) to the printing of a text file from a digital computer system. Cognitive psychologists working in an information processing model of human learning and performance tend to see SLA as the

52、 building up of knowledge systems that can eventually be called on automatically for speaking and understanding. Information processing model explain SLA from 3 stages:1.At first, there is a limit to the amount of information a human can pay attention to at one time. For example, a learner at the ea

53、rliest stages of second language learning will probably pay attention to the main words in a message and not be able to notice grammatical morphemes which are attached to some of those words. So, learners have to pay attention to any aspects of the language which they are trying to speaking and unde

54、rstanding.2.Gradually, through experience and practice, learners become able to use certain parts of their knowledge so quickly and automatically that they are not even aware that they are doing it. This frees them to focus on other aspects of the language which, in turn, gradually become automatic

55、(McLaughlin).3.Eventually, the performance will become automatic. It may originate from international learning, for example in formal study, but this is not always the case. We can use our mental processing space, a possible source for information or skills which can eventually be available automati

56、cally, if there has been enough practice (something which involves effort on the part of the learner).Interactionist position16. In what way are proponents of the interactionist position in SLA in agreement with Krashens monitor model? In what way do they go beyond it?AccordanceInteractionists agree

57、 that comprehensible input is necessary for language acquisition.Extension 1 Michael Long: is more concern with the question of how input is made comprehensible; views that modified interaction (negotiation of meaning) is very important during the conversation. Modified interaction theory: interacti

58、onal modification makes input comprehensible, while comprehensible input promotes acquisition so that interactional modification promotes language acquisition. 2 Vygotsky: socialcultural theoryassumes that all cognitive development arises as a result of social interactions between individuals. 3 Mor

59、e focus on the use and social functions of language. 17. What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers? What similarities and differences would you expect to find between these modifications and those that are observed in child-directed spee

60、ch? Why?What kinds of conversational modifications do native speakers make when they talk to non-native speakers?Interactional Modifications:Comprehension checks: efforts by the native speaker to ensure that the learner has understoodClarification requests: efforts by the learner to get the native s