國際貿易政策

1、Chapter 2 Instruments of Trade PolicyLearning Objectives 1. To learn about import tariffs and their measurement;2. To learn some of the non-tariff barriers;3. To understand export promotion measures and reasons for export control. 1. Tariff BarriersDefinition of tariffTariff is a tax, or duty, levie

2、d on a commodity when it crosses the boundary of a customs area. Tariffs include export duties and import duties. To increase the price of goods to make domestic goods more competitive (e.g. automobiles);To raise tax revenues for a government;To punish exporters or countries for unfair trade practic

3、es (e.g. anti-dumping duties);To adjust trade structure;Etc.There are various kinds of import tariffs Purpose of a duty1. Forms of import tariffs - according to the methods used in imposing(1) Specific duty (從量稅 );(2) Ad valorem duty (從價稅);(3) Mixed or compound duty (混合稅);(4) Alternative duties (選擇稅

4、).(1) Specific duty 從量稅 A specific duty is an import duty that assigns a fixed monetary (dollar) tax per physical unit of the goods imported. E.g. $25 per ton; 2 cents per pound.從量稅額商品數(shù)量每單位稅率Advantages of Specific duty Easy to collect only the physical quantity of imports is needed to know low cost

5、in collecting duties Disadvantages of Specific duty （1） It can not reflect price varies immediately, when inflation occurs, it will be disadvantage for domestic producers. E.g. If the import price is $5 and the tariff is $1 per unit, this is equivalent to a 20% tariff. But if inflation occurs, and t

6、he price rises to $10, the specific duty is now only 10% of the value of the import.（2）Commodities under the same tariff schedule(稅則), without considering their price or quality, has the same tariff rate unfair, unreasonable （e.g. watches）The application of Specific dutyCommonly, specific duty is le

7、vied on those commodities with low quality or low price. In the developed countries, specific duty is mainly levied on foods, beverages, animal and vegetable oils, etc. In the USA, specific duty accounts for about 33% of its tariffs. Specific duty plays more important role in the developing countrie

8、s ( trade structure). (2) Ad valorem duty 從價稅The ad valorem duty is levied as a constant percentage of the monetary value of 1 unit of the imported goods. E.g. 10% ad valorem duty （i.e. if price of imported goods is $10 import duty: $1)China adopts ad valorem duties. Advantages and disadvantages of

9、ad valorem duty Advantage: preserves the protective degree for home producers as prices increase.Disadvantage: difficult to operate (monetary value of the imported good needed to be judged) high cost in collecting duties. Duty paid value (完稅價格)Duty paid value is the basis for the customs house to co

10、llect ad valorem duties. Ways to calculate duty paid values:The CIF price ;The FOB price;Local market price of the importing countries;Customs value (海關估值) or official price of the importing countries. (3) Mixed or compound duty 混合稅A mixed or compound duty is a duty placed on imported items, the amo

11、unt of which is based on the above two duties. E.g. 10% of the value + $1 per batteryIf there is a shipment of 100 batteries valued at $2000Import duty = 10% * $2000 + $1 * 100 = $ 300(4) Alternative duties 選擇稅When both the rate of specific duties and ad valorem duties are stipulated for a particula

12、r item, the customs would impose duties by adopting either of these two duties. The application of alternative dutiesIf the purpose of tariff is to raise financial income, or to protect domestic industries, the customs house may choose the relatively higher duty to collect. If the purpose is to enco

13、urage import, the customs house may choose the relatively lower duty to collect. Disadvantage: It is hard for the exporters to predict the variously changing standards of collecting duties, and disputes may arise easily because of this. 2. Forms of import tariffs - according to the different tariff

14、rates appliedPreferential duties (優(yōu)惠關稅);Duties under general system of preference (GSP) 普惠制關稅;MFN duties (最惠國待遇關稅);General duties (普通關稅).(1) Preferential duties (優(yōu)惠關稅)Preferential duty is applied to importing goods according to its geographical source; a country that is given preferential treatment

15、pays a lower tariff. Cases: economic integrationEU zero tariff among members;Other FTAs, CUs, Common markets tariff arrangements(2) Duties under general system of preference (GSP) 普惠制關稅GSP is a system currently in place where a large number of developed countries permit duty-free entry of a selected

16、 list of products if those products are imported from particular developing countries. 發(fā)達國家承諾對發(fā)展中國家或地區(qū)輸入的商品，特別是制成品和半制成品給與普遍的、非歧視的和非互惠的一種關稅優(yōu)惠制度。 (1) Generalized: all the industrial countries give this treatment to all the manufactured or semi-manufactured goods of LDCs -普遍的，即所有發(fā)達國家對所有發(fā)展中國家出口的制成品和半制成品

17、給予普遍的優(yōu)惠待遇;(2) Non-discriminatory: all the industrial countries give this treatment to all LDCs, without exception -非歧視的，即應使所有發(fā)展中國家都無歧視、無例外地享受普惠制待遇;(3) Non-reciprocal: the LDCs do not reciprocate; they neednt grant goods from developed nations similar special treatment -非互惠的，即非對等的，發(fā)達國家應單方面給予發(fā)展中國家特別的關

18、稅減讓，而不要求發(fā)展中國家給予同等優(yōu)惠。 Three principles of GSPThe purpose of GSP(1) To increase the income of the LDCs;(2) To promote industrialization of the LDCs;(3) To speed up the economic growth of the LDCs. In contrast to the “non-discriminative” principle, the country must be a designated beneficiary country.C

19、ountries giving GSP treatment to China-英國、法國、德國、意大利、荷蘭、盧森堡、比利時、愛爾蘭、丹麥、希臘、葡萄牙、西班牙、日本、挪威、新西蘭、澳大利亞、瑞士、瑞典、芬蘭、奧地利、加拿大和波蘭等。China is excluded from the GSP scheme of the USA. Main aspects of GSP schemes- (a) Country eligibility criteria “Import-sensitive” products will be excluded. E.g. Articles being exclu

20、ded from GSP schemes of the USA:(1) textile and apparel articles;(2) watches;(3) certain electronic articles;(4) certain steel articles;(5) certain footwear articles;(6) certain glass products;Etc. Main aspects of GSP schemes- (b) Product eligibility criteriaProducts may be removed from any one coun

21、try if total imports from that country exceed a certain value/ percentage. domestic market protection.E.g.If a product is imported from any one country exceeds 50% of the total quantity of the US imports from all countries it will be removed for the following year, and it will be removed just for th

22、at country. Main aspects of GSP schemes- (c) Competitive need criterionA product or all products could be removed from the GSP for one particular country if it were found that this country is sufficiently competitive in a product or all products in the world market. This policy was first adopted by

23、the US in 1981. On Jan. 1, 1995, the EU also adopted the policy. Main aspects of GSP schemes - (d) Graduation policyNEWS LINK2005年, EU實行新的GSP制度, 對“畢業(yè)”標準作出明確規(guī)定：普惠制受益國任何一種產品如果在歐盟的市場份額超過15，就將失去普惠待遇。紡織品和服裝的“畢業(yè)門檻”更低，為125。中國的紡織品和服裝在歐盟的市場份額已經超過30，表明中國這一類產品已經可以從普惠制中“畢業(yè)”，將不能再享受普惠制下的關稅優(yōu)惠。取消普惠制后，中國紡織品和服裝所繳納的關稅

24、稅率將由之前的平均9上升至12。 Rule of origin: Criteria to determine the national source of a product; to ensure that only the goods from the beneficiary countries receive the preference. The rules of origin require that an article must be imported directly from the beneficiary country and substantial transformat

25、ion(實質性變化）. Main aspects of GSP schemes - (e) Rule of originLINK rule of direct consignmentThe article must be shipped directly from the beneficiary country to the importing country. If, however, due to geographic or shipment reasons, shipment via the third country or territory has to be made, the a

26、rticle must be under the custody of customs, and relevant certifications of transit must be provided. LINKsubstantial transformationSubstantial transformation means the cost or value of the material and direct processing operations performed in the beneficiary country equal to a certain amount of th

27、e value of the finished article.The standard of substantial transformation varies from country to country. In the US, 35% value-added is required. LINKcertificate of origin (Form A)Full name: GENERALIZEDSYSTEMOFPREFERENCESCERTIFICATEOFORIGIN（COMBINEDDECLARATIONANDCERTIFICATE）FORMA 普遍優(yōu)惠制原產地證明（申報與證明之聯(lián)

28、合格式）格式AForm A is issued by GSP government of the beneficiary countries and other documents of evidencing compliance with rule of direct consignment should be provided. 在我國，進出口商品檢驗局是簽發(fā)普惠制產地證的官方機構。MFN duties are duties for nations entitled to most-favored-nation treatment. A nation entering into a tar

29、iff treaty that includes the MFN treatment is required to extent to all signatories any tariff concessions granted to any participating countries (without discrimination).(3) MFN duties (最惠國待遇關稅)Two forms of MFNThe conditional form (有條件最惠國待遇) grants gratuitously(無償?shù)? to the contracting party only th

30、ose concessions originally made gratuitously to a third party and grants concessions originally obtained as part of a bargain only under equivalent conditions or in return for equivalent gains. 締約國的一方現(xiàn)在或將來給予 第三國的優(yōu)惠，締約國的另一方必須提供同樣的補償，才能享受。 Under the unconditional form (無條件最惠國待遇), any tariff concession

31、 granted to a third party is granted to the contracting party, a principle that was included in the GATT and in the agreement establishing the WTO. Example for MFN dutiesThe US and India conclude a bilateral tariff negotiation:India reduces its tariffs on US computers the US reduces its tariffs on I

32、ndia clothing. China has an MFN agreement with the US China will get the same tariff reduction on clothing from the US that India received. China also has an MFN agreement with India China will also get the same tariff reduction from India on computers that the US received. These reductions for Chin

33、a occur even though China itself did not take part in the bilateral tariff negotiation. Purpose of MFN dutiesThe purpose of MFN treaty provision is to simplify tariff bargaining and increase the likelihood of tariff reduction. All members of WTO are entitled to MFN treatment.Do you think if the GSP

34、or the MFN offers more preferential duties? 目前普惠制項下的出口產品關稅平均比最惠國稅率低約三分之一，是世界上關稅最低、最有吸引力的一種關稅制度。 General duties are non-MFN tariffs, which are applied to countries without MFN agreement. 普通關稅是相對于優(yōu)惠關稅而言的，它的稅率高于優(yōu)惠關稅稅率，適用于從沒有簽訂條約或協(xié)定或不享有最惠國待遇的國家進口的商品。(4) General dutiesTariff schedule 關稅稅率表 A countrys tar

35、iff schedule (or customs tariff) is a listing of all its import and export duties. Single-column schedule (單式稅則 ): the tariff is the same for a specific product regardless of the country of origin. Multi-column schedule (復式稅則 ): discriminates among export countries, with lower rates applying to coun

36、tries with which tariff treaties have been negotiated. (1) Countervailing duties (反補貼稅/抵消稅）;(2) Anti-dumping duties （反傾銷稅）3. Forms of import tariffs - According to special purposesA Countervailing duty is a customs levy designed to offset the effect of government payments and other extraordinary eco

37、nomic benefits (generically referred to as “subsidies”), granted to foreign producers or exporters which distort competition in international trade. (1) Countervailing duties (反補貼稅/抵銷稅）NEWS LINK2007年3月30日，美國商務部長古特雷斯宣布，將對中國山東晨鳴紙業(yè)公司和江蘇金東紙業(yè)公司出口到美國的銅版紙分別征收10.90%和20.35%的反補貼稅，對來自中國的其他銅版紙初步征收18.16%的反補貼稅。 本

38、次中美反補貼稅事件開創(chuàng)了美國對“非市場經濟國家”征收反補貼稅的先河。 2005年7月27日，美國眾議院通過了美國貿易權利執(zhí)行法案修正案，該法案將美國征收反補貼稅的適用范圍擴大到中國等“非市場經濟國家”。無論如何，本次反補貼稅事件折射出中美貿易沖突的升級。Source: 張明, 2007年04月02日- by the SCM (the Agreement on Subsidies and Countervailing Measures補貼與反補貼措施協(xié)定) of the WTO：(i) A financial contribution(財政資助) including direct transfe

39、rs of funds (e.g. grants, loans), potential direct transfers of funds or liabilities (e.g. loan guarantees);(ii) By a government or any public body (including sub-national governments and state-owned companies,but not including NGOs) within the territory of a Member; (iii) Confers a benefit. A finan

40、cial contribution by a government is not a subsidy unless it confers a “benefit”. Three basic elements of the definition of subsidy (1) Prohibited subsidies 禁止性補貼 ( or: red light subsidies 紅色補貼): including export subsidies & import substitution subsidies trade distortion. Export subsidies: 法律上或事實上以出

41、口實績(export performance)為條件而給予的補貼；Import substitution subsidies: 以使用國產貨物為條件而給予的補貼。Three categories of subsidies defined by the SCM agreement(2) Actionable subsidies 可申訴補貼 (or: yellow subsidies黃色補貼 ): including production subsidies and other specific subsidies Not prohibited but subject to challenge I

42、f such subsidies have adverse effects (負面影響) to the interests of another member.Three categories of subsidies defined by the SCM agreement(3) Non-actionable subsidies 不可申訴補貼 (or: green subsidies 綠色補貼): cannot be challenged or be subject to countervailing action. E.g.Assistance for R&D 研發(fā)補貼：對企業(yè)或高等院校、

43、科研機構在與企業(yè)合同基礎上進行研究的資助Assistance to disadvantaged regions 貧困地區(qū)補貼：在成員方的領土范圍內根據地區(qū)發(fā)展總體規(guī)劃并且非專向性對落后地區(qū)提供的資助；Assistance to promote adaptation of existing facilities to new environmental requirements 環(huán)保補貼:改造現(xiàn)有設備，使之適應由法律所提出的新環(huán)境要求而提供的資助Three categories of subsidies defined by the SCM agreement(2) Anti-dumping d

44、uties Dumping is a situation of international price discrimination, where the price of a product when sold in the importing country is less than the price of that product in the market of the exporting country. Definition of dumping in the ADP Agreement (Anti-Dumping Agreement): The introduction of

45、a product into the commerce of another country at less than its normal value. Determination of normal value- According to “Regulations of the Peoples Republic of China on Anti-dumping” () CASE 1: where there is a comparable price for the like product of the imported product in the ordinary course of

46、 trade in the domestic market of the exporting country (region), such comparable price shall be the normal value. CASE 2: where the conditions of CASE 1 do not exist, the normal value shall be the comparable price of the like product when exported to an appropriate third country (region) or the cost

47、 of production of the like product in the country (region) of origin plus a reasonable amount for expenses and for profits. Determination of normal value- According to “Regulations of the Peoples Republic of China on Anti-dumping” () CASE 3: In cases where a product is not imported directly from the

48、 country (region) of origin, its normal value shall be determined in accordance with CASE 1. However, under the circumstances that the product is merely transshipped through the exporting country, or the product is not produced in the exporting country (region), or there is no comparable price for t

49、he said product in the exporting country (region), the price of the like product in the country (region) of origin may be taken as the normal value. Determination of normal value- According to “Regulations of the Peoples Republic of China on Anti-dumping” () If a country was regarded as having non-m

50、arket economy，the price that is normally charged in its own home market will be disregarded when judging “normal value”. A reference country will be selected. Thus the normal value will definitely increase. E.g.the European Union used Singapore as a reference country in conducting antidumping invest

51、igation of Chinas exported color TVs. The cost of manpower in Singapore was 20 times high that of China. Non-market economiesNon-market economies Characteristics of non-market economies: The government has a complete or substantially complete monopoly of its trade;All domestic prices are fixed by th

52、e state. Table 3.1 PP. 83: China and anti-dumpingForms of dumpingsporadic dumping (偶發(fā)性傾銷) ;Intermittent or Predatory dumping (間歇性傾銷或掠奪性傾銷) ;long-run dumping (長期性傾銷);The Third Country Dumping (第三國傾銷) - Anti-dumping action on behalf of a third country .WTO members can impose anti-dumping measures, if

53、they can confirm that: (a) dumping is occurring; (b) the domestic industry producing the like product is suffering material injury or threat of material injury;(c) there is a causal link between the two. Circumstances to impose anti-dumping measures Measurement of Tariffs1. The “height” of tariff (1

54、) unweighted-average tariff rateCalculation of average tariff rate to see how much price interference exists in a countrys tariff schedule. Example of unweighted-average tariff rate: Imported goods A: 15% tariff rate;Imported goods B: 20% tariff rate;Imported goods C: 25% tariff rate.Unweighted-aver

55、age tariff rate = (15%+20%+25%)/3=20%Problem with the unweighted-average tariff rateIt does not take into account the relative importance of the imports. If the country imports mostly goods A, this unweighted average would tend to overstate the height of the countrys average tariff.1. The “height” o

56、f tariff (2) weighted-average tariff rateEach products tariff rate is weighted by the importance of the goods in the total bundle of imports. E.g.Imported goods A: 15% tariff rate, $800,000;Imported goods B: 20% tariff rate, $500,000;Imported goods C: 25% tariff rate, $200,000;weighted-average tarif

57、f rate =(15%*$800,000+20%*$500,000+25%*$200,000)/($800,000+$500,000+$200,000) =18%Why the weighted-average tariff rate is lower in this example?The tariff rates themselves change the import bundle ( the law of demand): giving greater weight to low-tariff goods. The weighted-average tariff rate is th

58、erefore biased downward. Problem with the weighted-average rate(2) weighted-average tariff rate Extreme example of prohibitive tariff: In the extreme, a country that imports a few goods with 0 tariffs but has prohibitive tariffs on all other potential imports will have a weighted-average tariff rate

59、 of 0%, and the country would look like a free-trade country!2. “Nominal” vs. “effective” tariff ratesThe nominal rate is simply the rate listed in a countrys tariff schedule, whether it is an ad valorem tariff or a specific tariff. It concerns with the extent to which the price of the goods to dome

60、stic consumers is raised by the existence of the tariff. Effective rate of protection (ERP) is the percentage change in the value added in an industry because of the imposition of a tariff structure by the country rather than the existence of free trade. It concerns with the extent to which “value a