天津理工大學(xué)英語(yǔ)

貴有恒何必三更眠五更起，最無(wú)益只怕一日曝十日寒。天津理工大學(xué)英語(yǔ)

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熱點(diǎn)問(wèn)題篇 人與自然篇 109115122109115122第一部分：綜合介紹課程簡(jiǎn)介：根據(jù)教育部高教司關(guān)于“大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課程教學(xué)要求（試行）的通知”的精神，大學(xué)英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)是大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課程的有機(jī)組成部分。本課程著重英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)的基礎(chǔ)技能訓(xùn)練，在培養(yǎng)學(xué)生英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)基本功（如發(fā)音、語(yǔ)音、語(yǔ)調(diào)、常用句型等）的基礎(chǔ)上，逐步增強(qiáng)學(xué)生口語(yǔ)表達(dá)能力，使學(xué)生能準(zhǔn)確地使用詞匯與語(yǔ)法，在討論有關(guān)話題時(shí)能進(jìn)行較長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的、語(yǔ)言連貫的發(fā)言，可以自然、積極地參與不同情景和話題的討論，并根據(jù)不同場(chǎng)合選用合適的語(yǔ)言。英語(yǔ)演講等口語(yǔ)表達(dá)要素，符合教育部高教司關(guān)于大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課程口語(yǔ)教學(xué)的目標(biāo)要求。選課建議：大學(xué)英語(yǔ)一、二年級(jí)非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)學(xué)生教學(xué)大綱：英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I課程為天津理工大學(xué)的大學(xué)英語(yǔ)必修課,學(xué)生在學(xué)完大學(xué)英語(yǔ)I級(jí)后，于第二學(xué)期報(bào)名開(kāi)始參加課程的考核，其目的是使不同層次的學(xué)生在英語(yǔ)應(yīng)用能力方面得到充分的訓(xùn)練和提高。學(xué)生通過(guò)大學(xué)英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)的學(xué)習(xí)和訓(xùn)練后基本達(dá)到教育部《大學(xué)英語(yǔ)課程教學(xué)要求（試行）》對(duì)口語(yǔ)表達(dá)能力的“一般要求”，即：“在學(xué)習(xí)過(guò)程中用英語(yǔ)交流，并能就某一主題進(jìn)行討論，能就日常話題和英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的人士進(jìn)行交談，能就所熟悉的話題經(jīng)準(zhǔn)備后作簡(jiǎn)短發(fā)言，表達(dá)比較清楚，語(yǔ)音,語(yǔ)調(diào)基本正確。能在交談中使用基本的會(huì)話策略。”“較高要求”系指“能夠和英語(yǔ)國(guó)家的人士進(jìn)行比較流利的會(huì)話，較好地掌握會(huì)話策略，能基本表達(dá)個(gè)人意見(jiàn)，情感，觀點(diǎn)等，能基本陳述事實(shí)，事件，理由等，表達(dá)思想清楚，語(yǔ)音，語(yǔ)調(diào)基本正確”。“更高要求”系指“能就一般或?qū)I(yè)性話題較為流利，準(zhǔn)確地進(jìn)行對(duì)話或討論，能用簡(jiǎn)練的語(yǔ)言概括內(nèi)容較長(zhǎng)，語(yǔ)言稍難的文本或講話，能在國(guó)際會(huì)議和專業(yè)交流中宣讀論文并參加討論”。英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I課程教學(xué)實(shí)施過(guò)程中，以跨文化交際內(nèi)容為主，應(yīng)用能力和學(xué)習(xí)策略培養(yǎng)至上，語(yǔ)言知識(shí)符以實(shí)境操練，多媒體課件及網(wǎng)絡(luò)教學(xué)大大加強(qiáng)學(xué)生的實(shí)踐教學(xué)環(huán)節(jié)。大學(xué)英語(yǔ)口語(yǔ)教學(xué)語(yǔ)料庫(kù)內(nèi)容新穎、信息量大，成為師生共享的教學(xué)資源。英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)1課程要求學(xué)生課外參加一定數(shù)量的學(xué)時(shí)，準(zhǔn)備或復(fù)習(xí)演講內(nèi)容，督促學(xué)生課外多聽(tīng)多看多說(shuō)（如：聽(tīng)VOA,看CCTV英語(yǔ)教育頻道，參加英語(yǔ)角活動(dòng)），多讀多寫（如：讀ShanghaiStar、21stCentury,寫日t己、周t己）。英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I考核具體說(shuō)明：.報(bào)名：理工大學(xué)在校非英語(yǔ)專業(yè)本科生第二學(xué)期初到各任課英語(yǔ)講師報(bào)名，參加本學(xué)期的英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I考核。任課講師制成授課班模板后，統(tǒng)一上報(bào)教務(wù)處。具體考核安排由外語(yǔ)學(xué)院實(shí)施。.每位學(xué)生每一學(xué)期限報(bào)名一次。即第二、三、四學(xué)期報(bào)名并參加考核。考核不及格的學(xué)生，視為掛科。網(wǎng)上報(bào)名參加下一學(xué)期的重考。網(wǎng)上未報(bào)上名的學(xué)生參加由外語(yǔ)學(xué)院組織的下一學(xué)期的考核。重考仍未通過(guò)的學(xué)生可參加下一學(xué)期的演講考核。學(xué)生在第四學(xué)期前完成演講練習(xí)I（2學(xué)分）的考核。.演講主題及演講稿：英語(yǔ)演講的主題和范圍因?qū)W生各自的喜好，興趣而定?？删驼n內(nèi)和課外熟悉的或感興趣的話題，用自然流暢和規(guī)范的英語(yǔ)連貫地、較為準(zhǔn)確地表達(dá)思想。學(xué)生可借助工具書以及參考資料，用英語(yǔ)書寫演講稿，面對(duì)聽(tīng)眾，就某個(gè)主題做陳述。.英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I考前輔導(dǎo)：從第二學(xué)期起，每一學(xué)期為學(xué)生開(kāi)設(shè)英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)系列專題講座。.考核過(guò)程：1）英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I考核過(guò)程分二部分：第一部分是學(xué)生選擇自己感興趣的主題有準(zhǔn)備的演講，時(shí)間約7分鐘。第二部分由考官就演講者演講內(nèi)容提問(wèn)以進(jìn)一步確定考生用英語(yǔ)進(jìn)行的口頭表達(dá)能力以及傳達(dá)信息、發(fā)表意見(jiàn)等口頭交際能力，時(shí)間約3分鐘。2）由教研室整體籌劃21位教師平均分成7個(gè)小組，分別由分組主任,委員，秘書組成。7位分組秘書同時(shí)擔(dān)任學(xué)生現(xiàn)場(chǎng)回答問(wèn)題的記錄工作。為公平起見(jiàn)，分組考官不參加自己任課班的考核。英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I測(cè)評(píng)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)：英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I歸屬為教育部頒布的《課程要求》附件二，較高要求,所以評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)參閱了大學(xué)英語(yǔ)四、六級(jí)考試口語(yǔ)考試大綱：準(zhǔn)確性、語(yǔ)言范圍、話語(yǔ)的長(zhǎng)短、連貫性、靈活性和適切性以及“CCTV”杯全國(guó)大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)演講評(píng)分標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。檔次標(biāo)準(zhǔn)描述分值第一檔（優(yōu)）1）演講自信，富有激情，有幽默感，能恰當(dāng)運(yùn)用身體語(yǔ)言；2）主題鮮明，內(nèi)容生動(dòng)，中心突出且能抓住觀眾注意力；3）發(fā)音較好，但允許有一些不影響理解的母語(yǔ)口音；4）語(yǔ)言準(zhǔn)確，表達(dá)連貫流暢，語(yǔ)意完整，詞匯豐富；5）能較迅速地對(duì)即興提問(wèn)做出恰當(dāng)?shù)幕卮?，語(yǔ)言組織5

較合理，雖然存在一些語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤，但仍可進(jìn)行良好交際。第二檔（良）1）演講自信，精神較飽滿，身體語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用適中；2）主題較好，內(nèi)容清楚，演講較能引起觀眾共鳴；3）發(fā)音尚可；4）演講能較連貫進(jìn)行，表達(dá)過(guò)程中詞匯較豐富，在多數(shù)簡(jiǎn)單句中時(shí)而穿插一些語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)較復(fù)雜的語(yǔ)句，雖存在一些語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤，但基本上可進(jìn)行較好的交際；5）能較迅速地對(duì)即興提問(wèn)做出回答，但語(yǔ)言流利性欠缺，存在一些語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤。4第三檔（及格）1）演講自信有感情，有少許肢體語(yǔ)言：2）內(nèi)容取材適中，不枯燥，基本上能抓住觀眾注意力；3）發(fā)音仃缺陷，仃時(shí)會(huì)影響交際；4）演講中頻繁出現(xiàn)較長(zhǎng)時(shí)間的停頓，影響了通篇的連貫性，但能夠基本完成交際任務(wù)；5）能在規(guī)定的時(shí)間內(nèi)對(duì)即興提問(wèn)做出回答，但語(yǔ)言不夠流利，存在較多的語(yǔ)言錯(cuò)誤。3第四檔（不及格）1）演講勉強(qiáng)達(dá)到或達(dá)不到規(guī)定的演講時(shí)間；2）取材過(guò)偏過(guò)難，影響觀眾產(chǎn)生共鳴；3）發(fā)音較差，以致交際時(shí)常中斷；4）語(yǔ)言表達(dá)過(guò)程中因缺乏詞匯和語(yǔ)法結(jié)構(gòu)而影響交際；5）對(duì)即興提問(wèn)反應(yīng)較差，只能用零星的詞匯作簡(jiǎn)單回2答，無(wú)法表達(dá)和傳遞信息。備注：1）主題鮮明，結(jié)構(gòu)清晰，中心突出，合理展開(kāi)，闡釋充分，內(nèi)容生動(dòng)，內(nèi)容充實(shí)；結(jié)構(gòu)清晰、完整；有新意，能吸引觀眾注意力。2）回答問(wèn)題：反應(yīng)能力。理解問(wèn)題準(zhǔn)確、反應(yīng)敏捷。表達(dá)能力，答案針對(duì)性強(qiáng)、條理性強(qiáng)、思路清晰。溝通能力：與他人溝通無(wú)障礙、自然、大方。3）技巧：有幽默感。注意手勢(shì)、眼神接觸與肢體語(yǔ)言，自信、有感情與氣勢(shì)；適當(dāng)使用修辭手段（比喻、類比等）。成績(jī)的核定：教師對(duì)學(xué)生英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I成績(jī)的核定參考學(xué)生的自評(píng)和互評(píng)。學(xué)生的自評(píng)和互評(píng)參照以下大學(xué)英語(yǔ)教學(xué)基本要求（試行）PP15-19o較高要求:（1）我能就熟悉的話題與英語(yǔ)國(guó)家人士進(jìn)行較為流利的會(huì)話，能將會(huì)話或討論進(jìn)行下去，并能接受或禮貌地拒絕對(duì)方的意見(jiàn)。（2）我能根據(jù)地圖或指示冊(cè)等用較復(fù)雜的語(yǔ)言為人指方向，說(shuō)明情況,解釋疑難問(wèn)題等。（3）我能基本表達(dá)個(gè)人的情感，如驚異，好惡，沮喪，抱怨等，能表達(dá)個(gè)人就某一事件的觀點(diǎn)和意見(jiàn)。（4）我能夠基本完整地講述一個(gè)故事，如故事的發(fā)生，發(fā)展，結(jié)局，時(shí)間，地點(diǎn)，人物，原因等。（5）我能基本描述個(gè)人經(jīng)歷，體驗(yàn)，如發(fā)生過(guò)或經(jīng)歷過(guò)的一件事情，表達(dá)愿望與理想，如旅行計(jì)劃或理想的職業(yè)等。更高要求:(1)我能就一般或?qū)I(yè)性話題較為流利，準(zhǔn)確地與英語(yǔ)國(guó)家人士對(duì)話或討論，并能將對(duì)話或討論有效地進(jìn)行下去。(2)我能就個(gè)人目的或社會(huì)交際目的靈活，有效地使用英語(yǔ)表達(dá)自己的意念，如情感表達(dá)，意愿表達(dá)等。(3)我能用簡(jiǎn)要的語(yǔ)言概括較長(zhǎng)，語(yǔ)言稍難的文章或講話，并能對(duì)某一題目給出較長(zhǎng)的解釋和說(shuō)明。(4)我能在學(xué)術(shù)會(huì)議或?qū)I(yè)交流中較為自如地表達(dá)自己的觀點(diǎn)和看法,重點(diǎn)突出，內(nèi)容完整，語(yǔ)言流暢。(5)我能使用較高的講話技巧，如引起聽(tīng)眾的注意力，維持聽(tīng)眾熱情，協(xié)調(diào)與其他講話人的關(guān)系等。英語(yǔ)演講練習(xí)I教學(xué)大綱將經(jīng)過(guò)教學(xué)實(shí)踐并聽(tīng)取專家、同仁和學(xué)生的多方意見(jiàn)后不斷完善，與時(shí)俱進(jìn)，以實(shí)現(xiàn)為新時(shí)期國(guó)家和社會(huì)培養(yǎng)人材的最高目標(biāo)。教學(xué)內(nèi)容：英語(yǔ)演講技能的重要性.全球化環(huán)境中就業(yè)與成功的生存技能Lifeskillforemploymentandsuccessinaglobalizedworld.跨文化語(yǔ)境中的交際能力與素質(zhì)修養(yǎng)Communicationcompetenceandself-cultivationinthecross-culturalcontext將英語(yǔ)演講課納入教學(xué)計(jì)劃的重要性.有助于提高學(xué)生綜合應(yīng)用英語(yǔ)的能力Improvementofstudents'aptitudeinusingEnglish.有助于學(xué)生綜合素質(zhì)的培養(yǎng)Cultivationofstudents,comprehensivequalities.英語(yǔ)教學(xué)改革的新課型Aninnovativecourseinthepedagogicalreform英語(yǔ)演講課中的素質(zhì)培養(yǎng).語(yǔ)言素質(zhì)(languagecompetence).文化素質(zhì)(culturalquality).心理素質(zhì)(psychologicaltraits).思辯能力(speculativethinkingability).交際能力(communicativecapability).道德修養(yǎng)(moralintegrity)語(yǔ)言素質(zhì)1)說(shuō)：培養(yǎng)學(xué)生使用較規(guī)范的英語(yǔ)、表達(dá)具有一定深度的思想的能力，是口語(yǔ)課基礎(chǔ)上的提高；2)寫：以說(shuō)促寫、以寫促說(shuō)，通過(guò)寫作訓(xùn)練學(xué)生邏輯表達(dá)和分析問(wèn)題的能力；3)讀：閱讀+朗讀；4)聽(tīng)：含“欣賞性傾聽(tīng)”、“同情性傾聽(tīng)”、“理解性傾聽(tīng)”、“批評(píng)性傾聽(tīng)”。傾聽(tīng)的過(guò)程就是培養(yǎng)批判性思維的過(guò)程。教學(xué)內(nèi)容與教學(xué)方法1.課程性質(zhì)1)不是口語(yǔ)課，而是英語(yǔ)+演講的特殊課型；2)不是理論課、知識(shí)課，而是實(shí)踐課、技能課；3)不是專門針對(duì)演講比賽設(shè)計(jì)的課型，但參賽學(xué)生可從中獲益。2.教學(xué)方法1)教學(xué)原則a.教師為主導(dǎo)，學(xué)生為主體，訓(xùn)練為主線；b.運(yùn)用激勵(lì)策略，營(yíng)造寬松型(free)＞學(xué)生友好型(student-friendly)氛圍；c.語(yǔ)境教學(xué)法(contextteaching)；d.過(guò)程教學(xué)法(processteaching)。3.教學(xué)資源Lucas,StephenE.TheArtofPublicSpeaking.8thEd.NewYork:McawHill.2004.配有Instructor'sManual.StephenE.Lucas(美)著《演講的藝術(shù)》，北京：外研社，2004。ArtofPublicSpeakingDVD“CCTV杯”、“21世紀(jì)杯”全國(guó)大學(xué)生英語(yǔ)演講比賽DVD英語(yǔ)演講課對(duì)教改的啟示.突破口語(yǔ)教學(xué)單純語(yǔ)言訓(xùn)練的模式，實(shí)現(xiàn)語(yǔ)言操練與思想表達(dá)的結(jié)合；.擺脫一般英語(yǔ)教學(xué)中技能訓(xùn)練的單一性，實(shí)現(xiàn)說(shuō)、讀、寫、視、聽(tīng)的一體化；.消除傳統(tǒng)課堂“填鴨式”教學(xué)的弊端，真正做到以教師為主導(dǎo)、學(xué)生為中心的“雙主體”、交互式教學(xué)；.變英語(yǔ)課堂為學(xué)生綜合素質(zhì)培養(yǎng)的場(chǎng)所。輔導(dǎo)的要點(diǎn)：1)如何克服怯場(chǎng)心理？2)如何培養(yǎng)批判性思維？3)如何確定演講題目及目的？4)如何進(jìn)行聽(tīng)眾分析(訪談、問(wèn)卷調(diào)查表)？5)如何謀篇布局？6)如何收集材料及利用材料支撐觀點(diǎn)？7）如何制作和使用視覺(jué)輔助材料（visualaids）?8）如何陳述演講（包括即席演講）？9）如何對(duì)付問(wèn)答環(huán)節(jié)？10）幾種主要的演講體裁：解說(shuō)性演講（informativespeech）、說(shuō)服性演講（persuasivespeech）、特殊場(chǎng)合演講（speechonspecialoccasions）。輔導(dǎo)講義演講要素（PresentingSki1Is）.Knowyourtopic（知道你要講什么題目）.Knowyouraudience（了解你的聽(tīng)眾）.Knowyourstartandstoptimes,aswellaswhoelseison（知道你開(kāi)始和停止的時(shí)間以及除你之外還有誰(shuí)要講話）.Knowwhatyouwantpeopletododifferentlyandtellthem（對(duì)你所說(shuō)的和人們所做的有什么不同，心中要有數(shù)，并讓聽(tīng)眾知道）.Makemajorpoints（寫下你的講話要點(diǎn)）.Asksomeoneyoutrustandrespecttoconstructivelycritiqueyou（請(qǐng)一個(gè)你所信任和尊敬的人對(duì)你的講稿提出建設(shè)性的批評(píng)和意見(jiàn)）.Relaxbeforeyougoon（演講前要放松）.Practice,practice,practice（練習(xí)、練習(xí)，再練習(xí)）.Rememberthatevenifyoumissabitorforgetacoupleoflines,nobody.Knowsexceptyou（記住即或你漏掉一點(diǎn)或忘掉幾行，除了你自己，別人是不會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)的）1l.Havefun（要有趣味）第二部分演講技巧ArtofPublicSpeakingCompanyIntroduction麥格勞-希爾教育出版公司(McGraw-HillEducation)成立于1888年,總部設(shè)在美國(guó)紐約，業(yè)務(wù)遍及全球30多個(gè)國(guó)家和地區(qū)。麥格勞-希爾教育出版公司是美國(guó)最有影響的教育圖書出版公司之一，其麾下的McGraw-HillContemporaryELT,SchoolDivision,SRA,Glencoe出版社是全美最著名的教材出版與服務(wù)機(jī)構(gòu)，每年出版逾700種新版各科類教材，更有近千種常備教材長(zhǎng)盛不衰。McGraw-HillELT(EnglishLanguageTeaching)教材是在為滿足美國(guó)本土英語(yǔ)為非母語(yǔ)的學(xué)生英語(yǔ)學(xué)習(xí)需要的基礎(chǔ)上發(fā)展起來(lái)的，利用大量的主學(xué)科教材資料融入英語(yǔ)教學(xué)，貼近生活語(yǔ)境，注重行為教學(xué)，優(yōu)勢(shì)突出。麥格勞-希爾教育出版公司在特別注重出版物的權(quán)威性、時(shí)代性的同時(shí)，尤其注重對(duì)教師的教學(xué)服務(wù)，遍布全球的營(yíng)銷服務(wù)與出版機(jī)構(gòu)積極服務(wù)于當(dāng)?shù)亟逃聵I(yè)的發(fā)展，共享全人類共同的知識(shí)財(cái)富。TheArtofPublicSpeakingChoosingaTopicPublicspeakingisanightmare?ThroughthisserialofextractfromMcGraw-HilFsbestsellerinpublicspeechTheArtofPublicSpeaking,wewillshowyouthewaytobecomeanarticulator.Thefirststepinspeechmakingischoosingatopic.Forspeechesoutsidetheclassroomthisisseldomaproblem.Usuallythespeechtopicisdeterminedbytheoccasion,theaudience,andthespeaker'squalifications.Inapublicspeakingclassthesituationisdifferent.Mostofyourspeechassignmentswillnotcomewithadesignatedtopic.Studentsgenerallyhavegreatleewayinselectingsubjectsfortheirspeeches.Thiswouldappeartobeanadvantage,sinceitallowsyoutotalkaboutmattersofpersonalinterest.Yettheremaybenofiicetlofspeechpreparationthatcausesmoregnashing?ofteeththanselectingatopic.Itisaconstantsourceofamazementtoteachersthatstudentswhoregularlychatwiththeirfriendsaboutalmostanysubjectunderthesunbecomementallyparalyzedwhenfacedwiththetaskofdecidingwhattotalkaboutintheirspeechclass.Fortunately,onceyougetoverthisinitialparalysis,youshouldhavelittletroublechoosingagoodtopic.Therearetwobroadcategoriesofpotentialtopicsforyourclassroomspeeches:Subjectsyouknowalotaboutand.Subjectsyouwanttoknowmoreabout.Let'sstartwiththefirst.TopicsyouknowalotaboutMostpeoplespeakbestaboutsubjectswithwhichtheyaremostfomiliar.Everyoneknowsthingsorhasdonethingsthatcanbeusedinaspeech.Thinkforamomentaboutunusualexperiencesyoumayhavehad.Thinkalsoaboutspecialknowledgeorexpertiseyoumayhaveacquired.Youareboundtocomeupwithsomething.Onestudent,whogrewupinPakistan,presentedafascinatingspeechaboutdailylifeinthatcountry.Anotherusedherknowledgeasjewelrystoresalespersontoprepareaspeechonhowtojudgethevalueofcutdiamonds.Athirdstudent,whohadlivedthroughatornado,gaveagrippingspeechaboutthatterrifyingexperience.Toodramatic?Nothinginyourlifeisasinteresting?Hereareafewmoreexamplesofspeechtopicsbasedlargelyonthestudents*personalknowledgeandexperience:HongKong:CityofParadoxIguanas3:TheIdealPetsScubaDiving4:ANewWorldUnderWater...TopicsyouwanttoknowmoreaboutOntheotherhand,youmaydecidetomakeyourspeechalearningexperienceforyourselfaswellasforyouraudience.Youmaychooseasubjectaboutwhichyoualreadyhavesomeknowledgeorexpertisebutnotenoughtoprepareaspeechwithoutdoingadditionalresearch.Youmayevenselectatopicthathasn'ttouchedyouatallbeforebutthatyouwanttoexplore.Orsupposeyourunacrossasubjectinoneofyourotherclassesthatcatchesyourfancy.Whynotinvestigateitfurtherforyourspeechclass?Stillanotherpossibility-especiallyforpersuasivespeeches—istothinkofsubjectsaboutwhichyouholdstrongopinionsandbeliefs.Imagineyouareatdinnerwithafriendandfindyourselfarguingthattelevisionbroadcastersshouldnotreporttheprojectedresultsofpresidentialelectionsuntilpollshaveclosedthroughoutthecountry.Whynotgiveaspeechinclassonthesametopic?Orsupposeyoubelieveyourschoolshouldsetupaprogramtohelpreduceburglariesoncampus.Likeeveryoneelse,yousurelyhaveissuesaboutwhichyoucaredeeply.Theymayincludenationalorinternationalconcernssuchasguncontrol,protectionoftheenvironment,orthethreatofcyberterrorism.Orperhapsyouareamayorfbraproposaltoincreasetuition.Notallsuchtopicsmustbe"political.*'Theycandealwithanythingfromgraduationrequirementstohelpingpeoplewithphysicaldisabilities,fromvegetarianismtopreservinganaturesanctuary,fromdormitoryregulationstobuildingachurchrecreationcenter.Afterallthis,youmaystillbethinking,nrveneverbeentoPakistan.Fmnotactiveinpolitics.WHATamIgoingtotalkabout?*1ifyouarehavingtroubleselectingatopic,thereareanumberofbrainstormingproceduresyoucanfollowtogetstarted.PersonalinventoryFirstmakeaquickinventoryofyourexperiences,interests,hobbies,skills,beliefs,andsoforth.Jotdownanythingthatcomestomind,nomatterhowsillyorirrelevantitmayseem.Fromthislistmaycomeageneralsubjectareaoutofwhichyoucanfashionaspecifictopic.Thismethodhasworkedformanystudents.ClusteringIfthefirstmethoddoesn*twork,trythesecond.It'satechniquecalledclustering.Takeasheetofpaperanddivideitintoninecolumnsasfollows:People,Place,Things,Events,Processes,Concepts,NaturalPhenomena,Problems,andPlansandPolicies.Thenlistineachcolumnthefirstfiveorsixitemsthatcometomind.ReferencesearchByclustering,mostpeopleareabletocomeupwithatopicratherquickly.Butifyouarestillstymied5,don'tdespair.Thereisathirdtechniqueyoucanuse.Gotothereferenceroomofthelibraryandbrowsethroughanencyclopedia,theReader*sGuidetoPeriodicalLiterature,theNewYorkTimesIndex,orsomeotherreferenceworkuntilyoustumbleacrosswhatmightbeagoodspeechtopic.InternetSearchYetanotherpossibility,ifyouhaveaccesstotheWorldWideWebviatheInternet,istoconnecttoasubject-basedsearchenginesuchasYahooortheLibrarians1IndextotheInternet.Ifyouselectonecategories—say,Health一thenextscreenwillshowallsubcategoriesindexedunderthatheading.OneoftheadvantagesofusingYahooasabrainstormingaidisthatyoucancontinuetomakeyoursearchmoreandmorespecificuntilyoufindjusttherighttopic.Suppose,forexample,thatasyoulookatthesubheadingsforhealth,yourattentionisgrabbedbytheitem—AlternativeMedicine.Ifyouclickonthisitem,youwillgetanotherscreenwithadetailedlistofsubheadingsforAlternativeMedicine.Workingfromthatlist,youcanlinkuptoothersitesthatwillhelpyounarrowandfocusyourtopicevenfurther.Thisprocessismuchfasterthanleafingthroughreferenceworksinthelibrary,anditcanbeagreatspurtothinkingcreativelyaboutatopic.Whateverthemeansyouuseforselectingatopic,StartEarly.Themajorreasonstudentshavedifficultychoosingspeechtopicsisthat,likemostpeople,theytendtoprocrastinate—toputoffstartingprojectsforaslongaspossible.Sincechoosingatopicisyourfirststepintheprocessofspeechpreparation,itisonlynaturaltopostponefacinguptoit.Butifyoupostponeitfortoolong,youmaydigyourselfintoaholefromwhichyoucannotescape.Startthinkingaboutyourtopicassoonaseachassignmentisannounced.Payattentiontointerestingsubjectsinclassandconversation,ontheradioandtelevision,innewspapersandmagazines.Jotdowninyournotebookideasfortopicsastheyoccurtoyou.Havinganinventoryofpossibletopicstochoosefromismuchbetterthanhavingtorackyourbrainforoneatthelastminute.Ifyougetanearlystartonchoosingatopic,youwillhaveplentyoftimetopickjusttherightoneandprepareafirst-ratespeech.Notes:facet:anyofthedefinableaspectsthatmakeupasubject(asofcontemplation)oranobject(asofconsideration)gnash:tostrikeorgrind(astheteeth)togetheriguana:鬣蜥。scuba:潛泳。stymie:topresentanobstacleII.TheArtofPublicSpeaking—UsingLanguageHaveyoueverplayedPictionaryl?Thepointofthegameistodrawwordssopeoplewatchingyoucanguessthem.Somewordsareeasy?—"house,n"bird,"and"television,"forinstance.Evenpeoplewithoutartistictalentcandrawtheseinsuchawaythatobserverscatchonimmediately.Butotherkindsofwordsaremorechallenging.Trydrawing"numb,”"embarrass,norHdehydrated2.HThemoreabstractthewordthemoredifficultitistorepresentvisually.Howwouldyoudraw^improvement'*or^appropriate"?Thisiswhylanguagehasevolved.Humanbeingsneedtocommunicateatalevelfarabovewhatcanbeshownbypictures.Butforlanguagetoworktheremustbeacommonunderstandingofwhatwordsmean.Ineffect,we*veallmadeapact3thatacertaincollectionoflettersandsoundswillmeanthesamethingtoeverybody.Ifyousay"book,"everybodywhospeaksEnglishwillpicturesomethinglikewhatyou'reholdingrightnow.Ontheotherhand,whenyoudon'tusewordsproperly,you"breakthepact"andcommunicationbreaksdown.Supposeyousaytoafriend,"Abby,you'resopedestrian4.HYoumaymeanshewalksalot;butAbbyislikelytobecomeangry,becauseyouactuallycalledherboringandordinary.LanguageIsImportantGoodspeakersrespectlanguageandhowitworks.Howwelldoyouuselanguage?DoyousayShaquilleONeal5playsbasketballgood,whenyoumeanheplayswell?Doyousayintheeventualityofv/henwilldo?Doyoudescribeahurricaneasaterribledisaster,asifthereweresuchathingasagooddisaster?Ifyoudothesethings,youareboundtobelesseffectiveasaspeaker.And,unfortunately,youarenotalone.MuchAmericanspeechisturningintothelinguisticequivalentofjunkfood6.Asaspeaker,onceyougettherightidea,youmustdecidehowbesttocommunicateittolisteners.Todothis,youneedtobeespeciallyconsciousofwhatlanguagecando.Unlessyouuselanguageaccuratelyandclearly,noonewillunderstandyourideas.MeaningofwordsWordshavetwokindsofmeanings—denotativeandconnotative7.Denotativemeaningisprecise,literal,andobjective.Itsimplydescribestheobject,person,place,idea,oreventtowhichthewordrefers.Onewaytothinkofaword'sdenotativemeaningisasitsdictionarydefinition.Connotativemeaningismorevariable,figurative,andsubjective.Putsimply,itiswhatthewordsuggestsorimplies.UsinglanguageaccuratelyUsinglanguageaccuratelyisasvitaltoaspeakerasusingnumbersaccuratelyistoanaccountant.However,weallcommitsubtleerrors一especiallyusingonewordwhenanotherwillcaptureourideasmoreprecisely.Everywordhasshadesofmeaningthatdistinguishitfromeveryotherword.AsMarkTwainsaid,"Thedifferencebetweentherightwordandthealmostrightwordisthedifferencebetweenlightningandthelightningbug."8Ifyouhaveseriousaspirationsasaspeaker,youshouldworkoutasystematicplantoimproveyourvocabulary.Thepurposeofthisistolearnhowtousetheproperwordatthepropertime.UsinglanguageclearlyAsmanypeoplehavediscovered,muchtotheirdismay,itispossibletouselanguageaccuratelywithoutusingitclearly.Aspeaker'smeaningmustbeimmediatelycomprehensible;itmustbesoclearthatthereisvirtuallynochanceofmisunderstanding.Youcanensurethisbyusingfamiliarwords,bychoosingconcretewordsoverabstractwords,andbyeliminatingverbalclutter9.UsinglanguagevividlyJustasyoucanbeaccuratewithoutbeingclear,soyoucanbebothaccurateandclearwithoutbeinginteresting.Ifyouwanttomovepeoplewithyourspeeches,usemovinglanguage.Dull,drearywordsmakefordull,drearyspeeches.Bringyourspeechestolifebyusingvivid,animatedlanguage.Althoughthereareseveralwaystodothis,herearetwoofthemostimportant—imagery(theuseofvividlanguagetocreatementalimagesofobjects,actions,orideas)andrhythm10(thepatternofsoundinaspeechcreatedbythechoiceandarrangementofwords).SummaryOfallhumancreations,languagemaybethemostremarkable.Throughlanguageweshareexperiences,formulatevalues,exchangeideas,transmitknowledge,andsustainculture.Indeed,languageisvitaltothinkingitself.Contrarytopopularbelief,languagedoesnotsimplymirrorreality,buthelpscreateoursenseofrealitybygivingmeaningtoevents.Wordsarethetoolsofaspeaker'scraft.Theyhavespecialuses,justlikethetoolsofanyotherprofession.Asaspeaker,youshouldbeawareofthemeaningsofwordsandknowhowtouselanguageaccurately,clearly,andvividly.Usinglanguageaccuratelyisasvitaltoaspeakerasusingnumbersaccuratelytoanaccountant.Neveruseawordunlessyouaresureofitsmeaning.Ifyouarenotsure,lookupthewordinadictionary.Asyouprepareyourspeeches,askyourselfconstantly,nWhatdoIreallywanttosay?WhatdoIreallymean?”Choosewordsthatarepreciseandaccurate.Usinglanguageclearlyallowslistenerstograspyourmeaningimmediately.Youcanassurethisbyusingfamiliarwordsthatareknowntotheaveragepersonandrequirenospecializedbackground;bychoosingconcretewordsinpreferencetomoreabstractones;andbyeliminatingverbalclutter.Usinglanguagevividlyhelpsbringyourspeechtolife.Onewaytomakeyourlanguagemorevividisthroughimagery,orthecreationofwordpictures.Youcandevelopimagerybyusingconcretelanguage,simile,andmetaphor.11Anotherwaytomakeyourspeechesvividisbyexploitingtherhythmoflanguage.Fourdevicesforcreatingrhythmareparallelism,repetition,alliteration,andantithesis.12Parallelismisthesimilararrangementofapairorseriesofrelatedwords,phrases,orsentences.Repetitionistheuseofthesamewordorsetofwordsatthebeginningorendofsuccessiveclausesorsentences.Alliterationistherepetitionoftheinitialconsonantsoundsofcloseoradjoiningwords.Antithesisisthejuxtapositionofcontrastingideas,usuallyinparallelstructure.Notes:pictionary:應(yīng)該是“picture”與“dictionary”的合成詞。dehydrated:干燥的。pact:協(xié)定。pedestrian:常見(jiàn)義是“步行者”，同時(shí)也有“缺乏想像力的、乏味的”之意。Sh叫uilleONeal:“大鯊魚”奧尼爾，MBA著名球星，系洛杉磯湖人隊(duì)中鋒。junkfood:外表花哨無(wú)價(jià)值的東西。denotative:指示意義的,本義的；connotative:有隱含意義的,轉(zhuǎn)義的。一個(gè)準(zhǔn)確的詞與一個(gè)幾乎準(zhǔn)確的詞的區(qū)別相當(dāng)于閃電和螢火蟲的區(qū)別。verbalclutter:說(shuō)話口齒不清。imagery:形象化描述，比喻；rhythm:（言語(yǔ)、文字等的）抑揚(yáng)節(jié)奏、輕重規(guī)則變化。simile和met叩hor分別是"明喻"和"隱喻"的意思。12.四個(gè)詞的意思分別是“類似”、“反復(fù)”、“頭韻法（指在一組詞或一行詩(shī)中用相同的字母或聲韻開(kāi)頭）”、“對(duì)偶（使用兩個(gè)平行的詞、短語(yǔ)、分句或句子）TheArtofPublicSpeaking—OutliningTheSpeechThinkwhatmighthappenifyoutriedtobuildahousewithoutafloorplanoranarchitect'sblueprint.Youbuildthekitchennexttothedrivewaytomakeitconvenientforcarryingingroceries.Butthediningroomturnsupattheotherendofthehouse.Whenyoucookandserveameal,youhavetorunwiththeplatestokeepthefoodfromgettingcold.Youputthebathroomattheheadofthestairstomakeitaccessibletovisitors.Butthedooropensinsuchawaythattheunwaryguestiscatapulteddownthesteps.1Plansandblueprintsareessentialtoarchitecture.So,too,areoutlinesessentialtoeffectivespeeches.Anoutlineislikeablueprintforyourspeech.Byoutlining,youmakesurethatrelateditemsaretogether,thatideasflowfromonetoanother,thatthestructureofyourspeechwillHstandup"—andnotcollapse.Probablyyouwillusetwokindsofoutlinesforyourspeeches—oneverydetailed,fortheplanningstage,andoneverybrief,forthedeliveryofthespeech.ThePreparationOutlineThepreparationoutlineisjustwhatitsnameimplies—anoutlinethathelpsyoupreparethespeech.Writingapreparationoutlinemeansactuallyputtingyourspeechtogether.Itisthestageatwhichyoudecidewhatyouwillsayintheintroduction,howyouwillorganizethemainpointsandsupportingmaterialsinthebodyofthespeech,andwhatyouwillsayintheconclusion.Nowletuslookatpiecesofguidelinesforthepreparationoutline.Thespecificpurposestatementshouldbeaseparateunitthatcomesbeforethetextoftheoutlineitself.Includingthespecificpurposewiththeoutlinemakesiteasiertoassesshowwellyouhaveconstructedthespeechtoaccomplishyourpurpose.Someteacherspreferthatthecentralideabegivenimmediatelyafterthepurposestatement.Otherspreferthatitbegivenandidentifiedinthetextoftheoutlineitself.Ifyoulabelthepartsofyourspeech,youwillbesurethatyouindeedhaveanintroductionandconclusionandhaveaccomplishedtheessentialobjectivesofeach.Usuallythenamesofthespeechpartsareplacedinthemiddleofthepageorintheforleftmargin.Theyaretechnicallabelsonlyandarenotincludedinthesystemofsymbolizationusedtoidentifymainpointsandsupportingmaterials.Inthemostcommonsystemofoutlining,mainpointsareidentifiedbyRomannumeralsandareindented?equallysoastobealigneddownthepage.Subpoints(componentsofthemainpoints)areidentifiedbycapitallettersandarealsoindentedequallysoastobealignedwitheachother.Onceyouhaveorganizedthebodyofyourspeech,youshouldhaveidentifiedthemainpoints.Youneedonlyfleshout3youroutlinewithsubpointsandsub-subpoints,asnecessary,tosupportthemainpoints.Butsuppose,assometimeshappens,youfindyourselfwithalistofstatementsandarenotsurewhicharemainpoints,whicharesubpoints,andsoforth.Suchalistmightlooklikethis:Therewere13peopleattheLastSupper—Jesusandhis12disciples.Oneofthemostcommonsourcesofsuperstitionisnumber.IntheUnitedStates,13isoftenomittedinthefloornumberingofhotelsandskyscraper.Thenumber13hasmeantbadluckaslongasanyonecanremember.Whichstatementisthemainpoint?Thesecondstatement,whichisbroaderinscopethananyoftheotherstatements.Thiswouldbeoneofthemainideasofyourspeech.Thefourthstatementisthesubpoint;itimmediatelysupportsthemainpoint.Theothertwostatementsaresub-subpoints;theyillustratethesubpoint.Rearrangedproperly,theylooklikethis:Oneofthemostcommonsourcesofsuperstitionisnumbers.Thenumber13hasmeantbadluckaslongasanyonecanremember.Therewere13peopleattheLastSupper—Jesusandhis12disciples.IntheUnitedStates,13isoftenomittedinthefloornumberingofhotelsandskyscrapers.TheSpeakingOutlineTodaymostpeoplespeakextemporaneously4—whichmeansthespeechisthoroughlypreparedandcarefullypracticedinadvance,butmuchoftheexactwordingisselectedwhilethespeechisbeingdelivered.Yourspeecheswillprobablybeofthistype.Youshouldknow,then,aboutthespeakingoutline一themostwidelyrecommendedformofnotesforextemporaneousspeeches.Theaimofaspeakingoutlineistohelpyourememberwhatyouwanttosay.Insomewaysitisacondensedversionofyourpreparationoutline.Itshouldcontainkeywordsorphrasestojog5yourmemory,aswellasessentialstatisticsandquotationsthatyoudonotwanttoriskforgetting.Butitshouldalsoincludematerialnotinyourpreparationoutline—especiallycuestodirectandsharpenyourdelivery.Yourspeakingoutlineshouldusethesamevisualframework—thesamesymbolsandthesamepatternofindentation—asyourpreparationoutline.Thiswillmakeitmucheasiertopreparethespeakingoutline.Moreimportant,itwillallowyoutoseeinstantlywhereyouareinthespeechatanygivenmomentwhileyouarespeaking.Yourspeakingoutlineisallbutworthlessunlessitisinstantlyreadableatdistance.Whenyoumakeyouroutline,usedarkinkandlargelettering,leaveextraspacebetweenlines,provideamplemargins,andwriteortypeononesideofthepaperonly.Ifyournotesaretoodetailed,youwillhavedifficultymaintainingeyecontactwithyouraudience.Toguardagainsthavingtoomanynotes,keepyourspeakingoutlineasbriefaspossible.Inoneword,agoodspeakingoutlineremindsyounotonlyofwhatyouwanttosaybutalsoofhowyouwanttosayit.SummaryOutlinesareessentialtoeffectivespeeches.Byoutlining,youmakesurethatrelatedideasaretogether,thatyourthoughtsflowfromonetoanother,andthatthestructureofyourspeechiscoherent.Youwillprobablyusetwokindsofoutlinesforyourspeeches—thedetailedpreparationoutlineandthebriefspeakingoutline.Thepreparationoutlinehelpsyouprepareyourspeech.Inthisoutlineyoustateyourspecificpurposeandcentralidea,labeltheintroduction,body,andconclusion,anddesignatetransitions,internalsummaries,andinternalpreviews.Youshouldidentifymainpoints,subpoints,andsub-subpointsbyaconsistentpatternofsymbolizationandindentation.Itisusuallyad