土木工程、工程管理專業(yè)畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)英文文獻(xiàn)翻譯

UnitEightTheCostofBuildingStructure1.IntroductionTheofwascharacterizedofcomprehensivelywithacomplexofnonphysicaldesignconsiderationswerecastasthatbewithinahierarchicalfashioniftheytohaveasignificantonenvironmentalTheeconomicalaspectofnonphysicalconsiderationthat,infinalalsobeconsideredimportant.considerationsarecertainconstrainttocreativeButneednotIfisknownofthebetweenofitistobelievethatcreativitycanbeenhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors’observationmostenhanced.Thishasbeenconfirmedbytheauthors’observationthatmostdesigninnovationssucceednotofunusualownerasfewpublicizedcasesofleadtocouldevensaythatadesignertrulywillexcellencewithinconstraintsoffindthatthereatothatcanbecomeconcepts.Therefore,inthischapterwewillforthabriefoftheparametersofcostanalysisthewhichdesignerstheoveralleconomicimplicationsoftheirstructuralThecostofstructurecantototalofOr,sinceconstructioncostisbutpartofcouldincludeadditionalconsiderationforland(10and～percent),taxescosts(ontheorderadiscussionofso-calledisbeyondthescopeofbook,willoncostofconstructiononly.thepurelystructuralforabout25percentoftotalconstructioncosts.Thisisithasbeentraditionaldiscriminatebetweenpurelyotherso-calledcostsofconstruction.inwefindthathavebeentobethatarenotnecessaryforstrengthphysicalofabuildingdesign.“Essentialservices”formsathirdconstructioncostcategoryandreferstotheofelectricalotherservicethefor15to30oftotalconstructioncost,onofelectricaltothecostofprovidingforhemeansonairdistributionaswellasservices,plumbing,lightpower.Thepointthatofuptonow,anaverageofabout45to60ofofconstructingatypicalsolutionbeconsideredasarchitectural.thispicturerapidlyWithinterestofgroupsleaneronemayconcludethataretwothedesignermaytakeinfluencingtheofThefirstapproachefficiencyistothatandcanbeapotentialforisSincecurrenttrendsindicatereluctancetoallocateofaconstructioncosts,thisseemsalogicalnecessity.evenwheremoneyisanyuseofstructuretoarolewillallowthebefulfillnormallytotofulfillneedsnormallyhavebecutback.Thesecondachievesthroughanofserviceone’sefforttoproduceatotalarchitecturalsolutiontoabuildingdesignproblem.Thefinalpricingofprojectbytheconstructororcontractorusuallytakesdifferentform.Thedowninto(1)costofbroughtto(2)costoflaborinvolvedinphaseoftheconstruction(3)costofequipmentrentedfor(4)costofmanagementandand(5)profit.TheorseldomfollowsanbutshouldkeepinhowcostofstructureispricedandThus,statedabovecrude,buttheysufficetointroducethenatureofthecostfollowingsectionswilldiscusstheofthesethenadiscussionofsquarefootageforinroughapproximationofofbuildingsystem.2.PercentageEstimatesTheofmayindicatetheofpercentagesthatcanbeallocatedothercosts.Asexpected,highlydecorativeorwouldnormallythelowestofstructuralastoconstructioncost.Inthestructuraldropto1015percentofthebuildingcostisallocatedtheso-calledthisimpliesthatthesymboliccomponentsindependentofbasicstructuralstructuresymbolismwithachurchthesystemcostbeexpectedtosomewhat15and20percent(ormore).ttheofcostaresimpleaswarehousesandInthesesystems,partitionwallsandwillmechanicalarenormallyminimal,iscanfor60toeven80percentthetotalcostofconstruction.medium-riseapartmentbuildings(5～10stories)occupypositiononcost25percentforstructure.Lowforhousing,ofthreeorfourstorieswithspansofsome20or30ftsimplerequirements,willcostsof～oftotalbuildingcost.Special-performancebuildings,asanotherTheycanrequirespansathanportionofthewillallocatedservices(i.e.,～50withabout20percentgoingforTallbuilding(15and/orlong-spanbuildings50to60ft)canhigherfor35percentofconstructionwith3040percentservices.Inmythesepercentagestypicalcanbeconsideredaofaverageefficiencyinofifandnobuildingtoat30percentthestructurealone,onecouldassumethatdesignbecomparativelyuneconomical.Onotherthebeawarethefactthatonpracticalabilityofboththeinterpretconstructionsothatlowbidwillensue.Progressindesignisoftenlimitedmorebythedesigner’sorcontractor’slackofexperience,imagination,ofcommunicationtheideaofIfaisuncertain,hewilladdhedgethehewillItforthatthethebeinofconstructionifatebebid.AtthethebecapableofworkingwithcontractorsandfabricatorswhereverevenifalwaysrequiresknowledgeallareThepercentagescaninapproximatingconstructioniftheassumptionthatstructuralisatleastof(oftypical)efficiency.Forexample,ifatotalofficebuildingconstructioncostis﹩25percenisthe“standard”tobeusedforstructure,aprojectedshouldcostno﹩veryefficientwererealized,say,at80percentwhatwouldbegivenbythe“averageefficientestimatestatedabovepercent),would﹩or5percentoftotalconstruction﹩5,000,000.If﹩5,000,000thensavings﹩couldbeexpandbudget“othercosts.Allofstructural(andmechanicalwiththetotalcaninareductioninconstructioncaninareductioninpurelyconstructioncostsarchitectureforsamecost.thedegreeoninsightfulofthecontractors.Theabovediscussionmeanttogivetheanperspectiveontotalconstructioncosts.Thefollowingsectionswillfurnishthemeansforestimatingofalone.Twoalternativemeanswillbeprovidedformakingcostestimate:oneafootbuildingbasis,anotheronofstructuralcanbegetaroughideaoftotalcostbyreferringtothe“standardsforefficientdesigngivenabove.Atbest,thiswillbemeasure,itishopedthatreaderwillfindthatithimsomewhatwithtypeofrealthatdealwith.Atleast,thiscapabilitywillbeinalternativeforthepurposeofdeterminingrelativecostefficiency.3.Square-footEstimatingAsbefore,ispossibleempiricallydeterminea“standard”percostfactorbasedaverageofforsimilarconstructionatime.efficientdesignsontheabilityofcontractoruselaborefficiently,andvaryfromTheoffootcostsfor“normal”structuralsystemsis﹩﹩16Fortypicalofficebuildingsbetween﹩12and﹩psf,apartment-typestructuresrangefrom﹩10﹩14.Incase,theoftherangetoshortlowwhereastheuppertolongermoderatelytallbuildings.Ordinarystructuressimplenormallysquare-footcostsfrom﹩﹩withtypicalAlthoughtheforgenerallylongerthanforbuildingsloadsheavier,commonlyfewercomplexitieswellfewerwalls,ceilingtheynotInsimplicitydesignerectioncanoffsettheadditionalforspanlengthsandheavierinindustrialbuildings.Ofaretotheseaverages.limitsofonasystem’scomplexity,spanlengthover“normal”andspecialloadingorfoundationconditions.example,CrownZellerbachbankbuildinganitscostswereunusuallyhigh.However,inthiscase,useofftspanscolumnsthebottom,whichcarrytheconsiderableaswellthespecialfoundationassociatedwiththeSansoilconditions,theexceptionallyhighcosts.designwasalsounusualfordecisionhadbeenmadeallowthancostsallaspectsofbuildingtoachieveopenspacesforbothfunctionHenceproportionoftototalsimilartoordinarybuildings.Theeffectofspanslongerthannormalcanbefurtherillustrated.The“usual”floorspanrangeisasforapartmentbuildings,16to25ft;forofficebuildings,20to30ft;forbuildings,25toftloadedheavilyat200300psf;garage-typestructuresspan,50to60carrying～psf)loads(i.e.,toforofficestructures).Wherethesedoubled,thestructuralcanto20to30loadingincaseofindustrialoffersanotherinsightintothedependencyofcostestimates“usual”standards.Iftheloadinganindustrialbuildingwerebe500psf(i.e.,twooradditionalcostwouldbeontheorderanother20to30Theinabovecasesisforfloorsystems.Forroofsefficient(flat)forappeartobetheorderofoforprestressedconcrete.AlthoughframesusedforAlthoughspace-framesusedforoverftfabricationbegintoraiseconsiderably.Atanyitshouldberecognizedverylong-spansubsystemsarecasescaninhaveasmalleffectonisadded,forspecialbuildingscanvaryfromdesigntodesign.Themorespecialthethataswellconstructionwillthepotentialcostefficiency.4.Volume-BasedEstimatesWhenaccuracydesired,estimatesofcanbethevolumeofusedtodojob.Atfirstitseemthewouldillequippedtovolumeofrequiredinconstructionwithanyandlessspeed.Butitiswithamoderateeffort,someformakingestimatesgivenbyin-placepoundsofthecubicyardsofreinforcedrequiredtobuildaForsuchapreliminarynotneeditemizecosts.in-placeincludetheofforming,reinforcingSteelincludesfabricationofCostsofasbyweightrangefrom﹩0.50﹩0.70perpoundinforForlow-risecanusemembersthatrequirefabrication,andcostbeasbow﹩0.50complicatedsystemsmuchcomplicatedtrussorspace-framedesign)cango﹩0.70poundandbeyond.Fortallbuilding20stories),wouldtypically20to30whichoneshouldwishnottoexceed.Acallingunder20psfwouldofofwouldberealaccomplishment.costsvolumetricfromanin-placelowof﹩150cuydforveryworkto﹩300perydforexpensivequantityprecastandisduethefactthatcontributingaremoredependinguponshapeofpreciseerectionproblems,andquantityFormgenerallythecontrollingforanycast-in-placeTherefore,toacostof﹩150peryd,onlythesimplestofsystemsbesuchflatthatofforms.Whereareintroducedthatrequirespecialformsdifficultyinplacementofconcrete﹩180ydgoesupto﹩inadevelopedlaborforhighformingresultsinpressureusethesimplestrepetitiveofsystemstocostsdown.Itbecomerewardingtothepossibilitymass-producedprecastandcomponents,whichbringinand\orconstructioncompletiontime.latterresultsinlowerforcontractorquickerfortheowner.exceptionabovecostpictureisthatofworkinHerethecostofformingandcastingfoundations(i.e.,forspreadfoundationsverysteel,assubgradebearingfoundations)shouldbeataboutperyd.Butinpilecancost$12perftinofdependingsoilconditions.Itenlighteningpaysomeattentiontomakeupofthesein-placeTheofaloneconcretework$40cuyddelivered.speciallightweightquick-settingthecan$50even$60yd.Mildsteel,dependingcuttingfabricatingcomplexityofrequiredreinforcingcanfrom30￠to46￠lbinplace.Forof150ofperofreinforcedsteelcostfrom$45tosqyd.ofreinforcingconcrete,cost$20tocuyddependingonofplacingandconcrete.FormlargestsinglecostfactorformostconcreteThecostbestatedfeetofcontactwithrequiringwallsforming.Incase,efficiencyonandtheofformdesign.Fortheplywoodsuchforflatthecostswillrunminimumof$1ofarea.Thissome$80offormingcostcuofforanordinary8-inwall.arecuttingcostsmuchbyhighlaborcost,theformingcaneasilygotoofarea.forverycomplicatedsuchasforwafflesystems,forsuspensionwilloftencontribute–concretecost,formsreused.Themassperfootareaaffectstheform/costratio.Thisinof,say,asimpleascomparedwithflatAtpsfformonecubicofconcreteplacedfora3-inwill108ftofform,atcostof$108.Thus,thinnersystem,thetheinfluenceofformcoststotalcosts.Prestressingcanbework.forabout$40$60perydforprecastand$60to$80cuydforin-placeconcrete.Butwithcompetentaredesignedincomparisonwithoverallcostofconcreteconstructionoftencheaperconcretework.otheradvantagesofweightminimumareOftenwhereprestressingisnotfoundtobelessexpensiveintermofimmediateconstructioncost,theabilitydesignforelementscolumnloading,aswelltheincreasedfreedom,thedesirabilityofelements.fortoisthatinwillfrequentlyonedecisioninaofimportantonlyofwhichisthesummarize,therangeofcostcubicofofpoured-in-placeconcretewillfrom$150$250,theminimumbeingforworkandformoderatelyanythatignoreseffectabovewillbecommensurately5.SummaryTheestimateofessentialwork,whichbevaluedbyallarchitectsengineersBetteryoudoprofityouwillfromit!中文翻譯：建筑結(jié)構(gòu)成本1．

導(dǎo)言建筑藝術(shù)設(shè)計(jì)被描繪成了作為一個(gè)既包含處理很多物質(zhì)因素考慮諸多非物質(zhì)方面的因素的復(fù)雜形式果結(jié)構(gòu)性因素對(duì)空間組織和環(huán)境控制設(shè)計(jì)思想有重大影響那么它就被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)相當(dāng)重要的物理因素應(yīng)當(dāng)采用分階段的設(shè)計(jì)方法。在最后的設(shè)計(jì)中建筑物經(jīng)濟(jì)方面的考慮作為一個(gè)主要的非物質(zhì)因素也認(rèn)為是重要的經(jīng)濟(jì)考慮對(duì)于創(chuàng)造性的設(shè)計(jì)在某些方面來說是一種制約但這也并非是絕對(duì)的果事先了解結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)及施工組織方案與實(shí)現(xiàn)他們的造價(jià)之間的關(guān)系那么可以相信創(chuàng)造性是同樣可以實(shí)現(xiàn)的通過作者的觀察已被證實(shí)多數(shù)具有創(chuàng)造性的設(shè)計(jì)是在有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性的招投標(biāo)中獲得成功的不是因?yàn)闃I(yè)主非常富裕。盡管后者被大肆炒作，卻很少使人信服。甚至可以說，真正具有創(chuàng)造性的設(shè)計(jì)師將產(chǎn)生卓越的建筑內(nèi)部的制約經(jīng)濟(jì)特別是今天我們發(fā)現(xiàn)高雅和經(jīng)濟(jì)其實(shí)可以成為一個(gè)統(tǒng)一的概念。因此在本文中我們提出了一些簡(jiǎn)要說明成本參數(shù)的分析和方法是設(shè)計(jì)師在他們的結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)中考慮經(jīng)濟(jì)因素時(shí)，經(jīng)常采用的一些設(shè)計(jì)手段。結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)本身是通過其在建筑物總造價(jià)中所占的百分比來衡量的或者因?yàn)楣こ淌莻€(gè)目總價(jià)的，因此還要考慮額外費(fèi)用如土地（財(cái)務(wù)和利息（100%~200%收和維修費(fèi)用右過上面這些因素都不在本文的討論范圍之內(nèi)，文章將重點(diǎn)介紹工程造價(jià)。平均來說單純的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)大約占總建筑成本的25%這是因?yàn)閭鹘y(tǒng)意義上的純粹的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)和其他所謂的建筑建設(shè)成本是分開的因此我們發(fā)現(xiàn)在傳統(tǒng)上所謂的建筑造價(jià)往是指那些與建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)強(qiáng)度和物理完整性無關(guān)的因素?！盎痉?wù)費(fèi)組成了一個(gè)第三類的建筑成本是指提供機(jī)械和電氣設(shè)備以及其他服務(wù)系統(tǒng)等費(fèi)用。就平均而言，這些服務(wù)的費(fèi)用大約占總建造費(fèi)用的，這主要取決于建筑物的類型。機(jī)械和電氣費(fèi)用，是指空調(diào)系統(tǒng)費(fèi)用以及其它服務(wù)設(shè)施，如管道系統(tǒng)、通訊和照明及動(dòng)力設(shè)備。突出的一點(diǎn)是這些費(fèi)用的明細(xì)顯示到目前為止一個(gè)典型建筑設(shè)計(jì)解決方案的總成本中平均約45%60%被分配給了建筑因素但現(xiàn)在這種狀況正在迅速改變，因?yàn)楦呃室约叭狈Y金，大多業(yè)主要求更精簡(jiǎn)的設(shè)計(jì)。因此，一個(gè)可能的結(jié)論是，設(shè)計(jì)者需要考慮兩種可以直接影響建筑物的工程造價(jià)的方式。第一種節(jié)約開支的途徑是考慮建筑問題和結(jié)構(gòu)解決方案問題能夠同時(shí)解決，這些地方往往有著很強(qiáng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)潛力由于目前的趨勢(shì)表明大多設(shè)計(jì)都不愿將很大一部分的工程預(yù)算用于純粹建筑設(shè)計(jì)，這種做法似乎是一個(gè)合乎邏輯的必要性會(huì)節(jié)省一部分非結(jié)構(gòu)預(yù)一經(jīng)費(fèi)可用于一些本會(huì)被削減掉的建筑需求。第二種節(jié)約開支的途徑是設(shè)計(jì)人員在設(shè)計(jì)過程中綜合考慮服務(wù)設(shè)施和結(jié)構(gòu)體系，盡力提出一個(gè)能夠解決房屋設(shè)計(jì)和施工難題的總建筑方案。建設(shè)方和承包商通常用不同的方式做出工程項(xiàng)目的最終報(bào)價(jià)們往往將其分（1場(chǎng)地材料費(fèi)每一個(gè)施工過程中的勞動(dòng)力成（工程所需購買、租借的裝備費(fèi)4）經(jīng)營(yíng)管理費(fèi)以及（5利潤(rùn)。建筑師以及工程師很少考慮的像上面所述的那么精確但是頭腦中應(yīng)該有一個(gè)清楚的概念那就是一項(xiàng)結(jié)構(gòu)工程的實(shí)際造價(jià)最終使用什么方法定價(jià)以及承包商又是怎樣標(biāo)價(jià)的。顯然上面講到的百分比平均數(shù)有些粗略但是它足以說明總體造價(jià)的組成情況了以下各節(jié)將討論這些平均數(shù)的范圍并進(jìn)一步闡述在對(duì)建筑無的造價(jià)進(jìn)行粗略、近似估計(jì)時(shí)用到的平方英尺以及單位體積造價(jià)。2．

百分比價(jià)建筑物的類型將決定結(jié)構(gòu)和其他構(gòu)件的費(fèi)用所占的百分比范圍如所希望的飾性或者標(biāo)志性的建筑物的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)相比于總體造價(jià)中所占的百分比相對(duì)較低。正因如此，結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)所占的百分比可降低至工程總造價(jià)的，因?yàn)楦嗟腻X被用到那些非結(jié)構(gòu)費(fèi)用上了又一次意味著這種標(biāo)志性的成分是與基本的結(jié)構(gòu)要求無關(guān)的然而對(duì)于一些諸如教堂類的綜合性標(biāo)志建筑物對(duì)其結(jié)構(gòu)體系的造價(jià)相對(duì)較高，其百分比可達(dá)到15%~20%或者更高。在另外一方面的是一些簡(jiǎn)易的和非象征性的工業(yè)建筑物，如倉庫或者車庫。對(duì)于這種建筑，由于內(nèi)部隔墻、天花板、管道設(shè)備系統(tǒng)以及裝修部分要求較低，其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)在工程總體造價(jià)中所占的比例往往能達(dá)到60%~70%，有時(shí)甚至可達(dá)。而如一些中等高度（層）的多層辦公樓或住宅樓，其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)在總體造價(jià)中所占的比例大約維持在25%而對(duì)于一些低矮且跨據(jù)短的商業(yè)用房和住宅大約層高且跨度為英尺以及簡(jiǎn)單的豎向要求其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)將占總造價(jià)。而如實(shí)驗(yàn)室和醫(yī)院這樣一些特殊用途的建筑則另當(dāng)別論他們需要較大的跨度以及不一般要求高的機(jī)械裝備就導(dǎo)致總體造價(jià)得以大部分將被用于服務(wù)費(fèi)用（大約30%~50%）,而單純的結(jié)構(gòu)價(jià)約占。對(duì)于15層或者以上的高層辦公樓以及大跨（約英尺建筑物其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)在總體造價(jià)中將占較高的百分比（約30%~35%服務(wù)費(fèi)用約占。在任何情況下這些百分比數(shù)據(jù)是典型性的并且可以被作為衡量建筑物設(shè)計(jì)平均效益的尺度。例如，如果一個(gè)較低的小跨度且不具備紀(jì)念價(jià)值的建筑物，僅僅結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)投標(biāo)就為30%的話，那么可以肯定這個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)是相當(dāng)不經(jīng)濟(jì)的。另一方面建筑師應(yīng)該注意到的一個(gè)容易混淆的事實(shí)就是經(jīng)濟(jì)投標(biāo)往往取決于設(shè)計(jì)者和承包人的理解設(shè)計(jì)及施工要求的實(shí)際能力力強(qiáng)就能提供一個(gè)較低的投標(biāo)創(chuàng)造性設(shè)計(jì)受限往往是因?yàn)樵O(shè)計(jì)者或承包商在經(jīng)驗(yàn)想象力際交流方面的匱乏。如果承包者沒有把握，那么它就會(huì)加大投資，以防可能遇到的意外風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。因此要使有創(chuàng)造性的設(shè)計(jì)在投標(biāo)時(shí)具有競(jìng)爭(zhēng)力為一名建筑師它應(yīng)能夠洞察工程潛力所在至少建筑是應(yīng)該盡可能地與想象力豐富的結(jié)構(gòu)工程師承包商甚至制造商進(jìn)行密切配合相反即使對(duì)于最為普通的建筑設(shè)計(jì)如果僅僅靠設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)，是很難取得經(jīng)濟(jì)效益的。效率離不開專業(yè)知識(shí)，而最為重要的是想象力，這一點(diǎn)在面對(duì)一個(gè)不太熟悉的項(xiàng)目是尤為重要。如果建筑物結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)至少具有中（或標(biāo)準(zhǔn)的效益時(shí)前面所提到的百分比可以在建筑物總造價(jià)估算有著很大的幫助。例如，如果一座辦公樓總體造價(jià)500美元，其中25%時(shí)結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，那么這一工程結(jié)構(gòu)體系造價(jià)就不能超過125美元若設(shè)計(jì)很合理比如時(shí)按上述的中等效益設(shè)計(jì)估算造價(jià)的80%時(shí)那么就有25萬美元也就是的總體建筑費(fèi)用被省下來如果這萬資金已經(jīng)到位，那么節(jié)省下的萬美元就可用于其他的經(jīng)濟(jì)開支。所有這些表明結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)和建筑整體設(shè)（機(jī)械和電器的創(chuàng)造性結(jié)合的概念將有助于減少單純的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)或在相同造價(jià)下提供更多的建筑費(fèi)用樣，設(shè)計(jì)成功的程度將取決于設(shè)計(jì)者的專業(yè)知識(shí)活性以及設(shè)計(jì)者和承包人之間有洞察力的合作，上面討論僅僅是提供一種關(guān)于建筑總體造價(jià)的全面視圖面的部分將提供對(duì)建筑的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)進(jìn)行估價(jià)的方法兩種可供選擇的方法將用來進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)的近似估價(jià)其一是根據(jù)單位平方英尺建筑面積另一種則是根據(jù)所用的結(jié)構(gòu)材料體積進(jìn)行估價(jià)參考上面所提到的有效設(shè)計(jì)的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)最后的結(jié)構(gòu)估價(jià)有助于對(duì)建筑的總體造價(jià)驚醒大概的了解當(dāng)然這樣得到的只是一個(gè)粗略的估價(jià)卻會(huì)使設(shè)計(jì)負(fù)責(zé)人員對(duì)際設(shè)計(jì)中經(jīng)常要面對(duì)的經(jīng)濟(jì)問題有所了解少，這些將有助于對(duì)可供選擇的結(jié)構(gòu)體系的相對(duì)成本效益進(jìn)行對(duì)比。3．

平方英估計(jì)正如前面所提到的在一個(gè)特定的時(shí)期和地區(qū)是可以根據(jù)相似工程的平均造價(jià)來經(jīng)驗(yàn)地確定準(zhǔn)平方英尺造價(jià)系數(shù)設(shè)計(jì)者和承包人有效的利用材料和勞動(dòng)力的能力不同，會(huì)導(dǎo)致不同平均水平的經(jīng)濟(jì)效率設(shè)計(jì)的。對(duì)于“普通”的結(jié)構(gòu)體系，每平方英尺的造價(jià)為1美元，例如，典型的辦公樓平均水平在美元之間住宅型建筑的范圍則是元對(duì)以上兩種情況下限適用于短跨低矮的建筑而上限則是用于較大跨度及中等高度的建筑。普通工業(yè)建筑結(jié)構(gòu)如典型的住宅性建筑平面形狀簡(jiǎn)單通常每平方英尺的造價(jià)為10~14美元盡管工業(yè)建筑的跨度很大且荷載較重但他們的布局簡(jiǎn)單，在內(nèi)墻、隔墻以及天花板方面的要求較少，且一般不高。換句話說，設(shè)計(jì)和安裝的簡(jiǎn)單化，可以彌補(bǔ)工業(yè)建筑因大跨度和重載所造成的額外造價(jià)。當(dāng)然也存在著不同于平均水平的情況。變化的限度取決于體系的復(fù)雜程度、跨度超長(zhǎng)的程度、特殊的荷載級(jí)地震條件等。例如，由于結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)相當(dāng)高，位于舊金山的Zellerbach銀行和辦公樓舊稱得上是個(gè)例外。英尺跨度的鋼架以及底部用來承受地震荷載的自由支撐的柱子，連同舊金山糟糕的土壤狀況，都造成了較高的造價(jià)在那個(gè)時(shí)期這樣的設(shè)計(jì)是非同尋常的正是因?yàn)槠涮厥獾挠猛炯皹?biāo)志性才被允許以建筑物個(gè)方面都高出同類建筑物的平均水平的造價(jià)進(jìn)行建造。因此，其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)在總體造價(jià)中的比重接近也普通建筑物?，F(xiàn)在將進(jìn)一步敘述超長(zhǎng)跨度的影響。正常跨度的范圍規(guī)定為：住宅16~25英尺；辦公20~30英尺；工業(yè)建筑為尺，且每平方英尺承重200~300大約是住宅或辦公樓的3倍筑為尺對(duì)較平方英尺，類似于住宅或辦公樓如果跨度增加一倍，結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)將會(huì)提高大約。工業(yè)建筑中較大的荷載也無形中提高了建筑物的結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)果一個(gè)工業(yè)建筑的荷載增加到每平方米磅（大約2~3倍）的話，其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)也將提高。上面所述都是針對(duì)樓層系統(tǒng)而言的采用有效正交各向異性體系的公寓屋頂不管是鋼還是預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土的其現(xiàn)代經(jīng)濟(jì)設(shè)計(jì)者的限值都是尺盡管鋼結(jié)構(gòu)空間框架常大于英尺，其制造費(fèi)用也將大大增加。無論如何長(zhǎng)跨度體系都有其特殊性它可能較多也可能較少的影響總體建筑造價(jià)時(shí)對(duì)于特殊的建筑物其結(jié)構(gòu)造價(jià)將隨著設(shè)計(jì)的不同而明顯地改變。結(jié)構(gòu)形式越特殊由設(shè)計(jì)知識(shí)設(shè)計(jì)的創(chuàng)造性以及施工技術(shù)所決定的造價(jià)節(jié)儉潛力就越大。4．

體積度估計(jì)當(dāng)更高的準(zhǔn)確性被被需求時(shí)可以通過工程中所用到的材料體積來估計(jì)之下，一個(gè)建筑師不善于精確地估計(jì)建筑過程中所用到的材料體積如要得到更高的精度以通過工程中所用到的材料體積來估計(jì)造價(jià)進(jìn)展會(huì)非常緩慢但通過努力學(xué)習(xí)后實(shí)現(xiàn)這一估計(jì)是可能的。體積度量估計(jì)是通過制定結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)中需要的以磅或噸記得鋼材立方體的鋼筋或預(yù)應(yīng)力混凝土的現(xiàn)場(chǎng)價(jià)格來實(shí)現(xiàn)的對(duì)于這樣一個(gè)初步估計(jì)并不需要去詳究它的詳細(xì)造價(jià)。例如，混凝土的現(xiàn)澆造