AP環(huán)境科學(xué)考前終極知識(shí)點(diǎn)總結(jié)

PollutionDose-responseanalysis:exposetoatoxinatdifferentconcentrationsHighLD50meanslowtoxicityPoison:LD50of50mgorlessperkgofbodyweightED50:50%showsnegativeeffectThresholddoseAcuteeffectChroniceffectInfection:resultofapathogen病菌invadingbodyPathogensViruses,bacteria,fungi,protozoa原生動(dòng)物,parasiticwormsVector:ticksspreadspottedfeverPollutantsPrimary:COSecondary:acidrain(SO2+SO3+watervapor),PANsCriteriapollutantsCO:bindsirreversiblytohemoglobinPb:smeltingO3:goodathighNO2:combustionengines--smog,acidprecipitationSO2:combustionofcoal,smeltingParticulates:soot,sulfateaerosolsIndoorpollutantsVOC:drycleaning,carpet,furniture;formO3andsmogTobaccosmokeRadon:lungcancer;emittedbyuraniumSmogAidedbyairinversions(trappollutants)andfog(holdpollutants)Industrialsmog(gray)andphotochemicalsmog(brown)CFC:propellants,fireextinguishers,hairspray--depletesozoneMontrealProtocolOzoneloss:greatestinspringasClbreaksdownO3intoO2AcidrainCalciumactsasbuffertoacidprecipitationCleanAirAct:establishedcap-and-tradeprogramforSO2in1990NationalAmbientAirQualityStandardsCatalyticconverter:controlemissionsincarsCorporateAverageFuelEconomy(CAFE)Anthropogenicgreenhousegas:CO2,CH4,N2OTemperatureinversionHypoxiczone(depletionofO2)causedbyeutrophicationJudgewaterqualitypHHardness:concentrationsofcalciumandmagnesiumDissolvedoxygen:warmwater=lessDOTurbidityBOD:ratebacteriaabsorbOfromwaterDealwwastewaterSludgeprocessor:tankfilledwaerobicbacteria;sludgefurtherprocessedwanaerobicbacteria--producesCH4thatcanbeusedasfueltorunthetreatmentplant;sludgecakeusedasfertilizerTertiarytreatment:passsecondarytreatedwaterthrusandandcarbonfiltersandthenchlorinationRecyclingPrimary:sameproductsSecondary:newproductsHazardouswasteCorrosiveIgnitableReactiveToxicDisposedthruInjectionwells,surfaceimpoundments(forliquidwastethatevaporates),landfillsTransuranicwaste:leftoverfromnuclearweaponsResourceConservationandRecoveryActHigh-levelradioactivewastes:buryundergroundinremoteareasSuperfundprograminRockyFlatsLoveCanal:landfillCap-and-tradepolicy:economicincentivesforlimitingemissionsMarketpermitsRelationshipsReservoirExchangepoolWherenutrientssitforalongtimeWherenutrientssitforashorttime--ResidencytimeOcean,snow,iceCloud,livingorganismsforwater--e.g.LawofConservationofMatterTraceelements(zinc,copper,iron)arerequiredbylivingthingsthatcycle,alongwmajorelementsWatercycleEvaporation:fromearth'ssurfaceandfromlivingorganismsTranspiration:plantsCarboncycleRespiration:animalsandplantsPhotosynthesisWaystoreleasecarbonBurnoffossilfuelsVolcanoReservoirs:ocean,earth'srocks,fossilfuelsNitrogencycleNitrogenfixation:nitrogenbecomeammonia/nitratesthrulightningstormsorsoilbacteria(rhizobiuminlegumes)Nitrification:soilbacteriaconvertsammonium(NH4+)intonitrate(NO3)Assimilation:plantsabsorbNH3,NH4+,NO3-.Heterotrophs(organismsreceiveenergybyconsumingotherorganisms)obtainnitrogenAmmonification:decomposingbacteriaconvertdeadorganismstoNH3orNH4+thatcanbereusedDenitrification:ammoniaconvertedtonitritesandnitratesandtoN2/N2OthatrisetoatmospherePhosphoruscycleFoundinsoil,rock,sediments;releasedthruchemicalweatheringintheformofphosphate;limitingfactorforplantgrowthSulfurNeedinplants'andanimals'dietsInrocksandsandsanddeepintheoceanWaystoenteratmosphereVolcano,bacterialfunctions,decayofonce-livingorganismsIndustrial:SO2andH2SgasesAutotrophs/heterotrophsProducersChemotrophs:chemosynthesis--makefoodfrominorganicchemicalsinanaerobicenvironmentsNetPrimaryProductivity(NPP)--amountofenergyplantspasstoherbivores,calculatedby[GrossPrimaryProductivity(amountofsugarplantsproduceinphotosynthesis)-amountofenergyplantsneedforgrowth...]NPP:limitingfactorforthenumberofconsumersConsumersPrimarySecondaryTertiaryDetritivores:consumenonlivingorganicmattersuchasdeadanimals/fallenleavesDecomposers:bacteriaandfungiabsorbnutrientsfromnonlivingorganicmatterasplant,wastesoflivingorganisms,andcorpsesBiomagnification:increasingconcentrationoftoxinathighertrophiclevelsEcosystemsBiomesEcotones:transitionalareawheretwoecosystemsmeetEcozones/ecoregions:smallerregionsthatsharesimilarphysicalfeaturesAquaticlifezonesFreshwaterSaltwaterLawofTolerance

LawoftheMinimum:livingorganismswillcontinuetoliveuntilthesupplyofmaterialsisexhaustedPhylogenetictreetomodelevolutionSpeciationHowevolutionworksNaturalselectionGeneticdrift:accumulationofchangesinthefrequencyofalleles(versionsofagene)duetosamplingerrorsMicroevolutionMacroevolutionExtinctionBiologicalEcological:sofewthatcannotperformecologicalfunction-Commercial/economicCompetitionIntraspecific:samespeciescompeteInterspecific:differentspeciescompeteGause'sprinciple:notwospeciescanoccupythesamenicheatthesametime,onehasto…RealizednicheFundamentalniche--nocompetitionPredationSymbioticrelationshipsMutualistic:seaanemoneandclownfishCommensalistc:treesandepiphytesParasitism:oneisharmedtheotherbenefitsEcologicalsuccessionPrimarySecondaryClimaxcommunity--balanceb/tabioticandbioticPioneerspecies:lichenEdgeeffect:greaterspeciesdiversityandbiologicaldensityatboundariesTheoryofIslandBiogeography:numberofspecieson"island"isdeterminedbyimmigrationandextinction

PopulationPopulationdispersionRandomClumping:mostcommonUniform:e.g.forestsBioticpotential--theamountthatpopulationwouldgrowifunlimitedresourcesunpractical!Carryingcapacity(K)Exponential(unrestricted)growth-JcurveLogistic(restricted)growth-ScurveReproductivestrategyR-selected:bacteria,algae,andprotozoa;reproduceearlyandoftenK-selected:humans,lions,andcows;reproducelateandfewerPopulationcyclesBoom-and-bustCommonamongr-strategistsPredator-prey:rabbitsandcoyotesFactorsinfluencepopulationgrowthDensity-dependent:increasedpredation,competition,toxicmaterialsDensity-independent:fire,storms,earthquakesActualgrowthrate=(birthrate-deathrate)/10Birth/deathper1000Totalfertilityrate:numberofchildrenawomanbearsduringlifetimeReplacementbirthrate:2.5fordevelopingcountriesAge-structurepyramids/diagramsdescribepopulationsPre-reproductive0-14Reproductive15-44Post-reproductive45+Demographictransitionmodel--predictpopulationtrendsbasedonbirth/deathratesPre-industrialstate:highbirthanddeathrates;environmentalresistance--harshlivingconditionsTransitionalstate:highbirthandlowdeathIndustrialstate:lowbirthanddeath;highgrowthPostindustrialstate:zerogrowthMacronutrientsareneededinlargeamounts:proteins,carbonhydrates,andfatsMicronutrients:vitamins,iron,andmineralssuchasCaHunger<malnutrition<undernourished5massextinctionsSecondHarvestinUS:redistributefoodthatwouldotherwisegotowasteUrbansprawl:emigratesfromcitytosuburbsI=PxAxT(Impact,population,affluence,technology)Threatened<endangeredBiodiversityhotspot:ahighlydiverseregionthatfacesthreatsandhaslost70%ofvegetationLawsMarinemammalprotectionactEndangeredspeciesactConventiononinternationaltrade…

EnergyPotentialenergyKineticenergyRadiantenergy/sunlightNetenergyyield:thecostofextraction,processing,andtransportationandtheamountofusefulenergyconvectionConductionMovementofheatedmatterThrumatterfromparticletoparticleFirstlawofthermodynamics:energycanonlybetransformed/transferred.E.g.photosynthesisSecondlawofthermodynamics:increasingentropy-->energyislosttouniverseasheatWaystoproduceelectricityFossilfuels64%Howfossilfuelsproduceelectricity:BurningfuelWaterheatedtosteamSteampushesturbinebladesSpinningturbinesrotatecoilsthrumagneticfieldsingeneratorsCurrentinducedascoilsspin,producingelectricalenergyCoalfoundinseams(longcontinuousdeposits)Largestcoalreserve:inUSExploratorywells;provenreserveOilextraction:takeadvantageofthedifferencesinboilingpointsPrimary:releaseofoilandgas--gusherPressure:usesmud,saltwater,andCO2Usessteam,hotwater/gasestomeltverythickcrudeoilOilcanalsobefoundinrock(shaleoil)andsurfacesands(tarsands)CoalAnthracite:purecarbonBituminousSubbitumimousLignite:theleastpureCO2,NO…,Hg,SO2CanberemovedbyScrubbers:alkalinesubstancesthatprecipitateoutSO2;theneutralcompoundformedinthescrubber(calciumsulfate)iseliminatedinwastesludgeFlyashandboilerresidueIronsulfidecanberemovedbygrindingcoalintosmalllumpsandwashingOrganicsulfurisonlyreleasedduringcombustionBurncoalwlimestone--wCainlimestoneformcalciumsulfateSmoke-stackscrubbingWetscrubbing:transformSOXtowaterpollutionissue/commercialproduct(sulfuricacid)Baghouse/cycloscrubbing:likevacuumcleanersElectrostaticfilters:useelectricchargetoattractdustparticulatestometalsurfacesCoalgasificationcanbeusedtoremoveNOX,SOX,andparticulatesNaturalgasLargestsource:wetlands;secondlargest:livestockExplosions,difficulttotransport,pipes,energyinputforliquefyingStripminingUndergroundminingRemovalofearth'ssurfaceSinkofshaftstoreachdepositsLeavesslagheapscontainingsulfurCausesmassiveslumping/subsidenceNuclearenergy17%NonrenewableUranium-238;uranium235splitsthrufissionBreederreactorsgeneratenewfissionablematerialsfasterthantheyconsumesuchmaterialNuclearfusion:fusingtritium-2neutronsanddeuterium-1neutronNuclearreactorsinUSBoilingwaterreactor:twowatercirculationsystemsPressurizedwaterreactor:three…Renewableenergysources19%Biomass:wood,charcoal,animalwastesGasohol:90%gasolineand10%ethanol;hashigheroctane;expensiveandenergy-intensivetoproduceHydroelectricpower:thermalpollution;dams;sedimentstrapped;moreevaporationandwaterlossSolarenergyPassivecollectionActivecollectionPVcells:producedusingfossilfuelsWindenergy:fastestgrowingNacelle:baseofwindmillGeothermalenergy:dissolvedsaltcorrodemachine;gasessuchasmethane,CO2,hydrogensulfide,andammoniaarereleasedOceantidesHydrogencells:cleanest,safestObtainedfromfossilfuelsbyreformingHydrogenreleasedthruelectrolysis(fromH2O):mayusefossilfuelHydrogenobtainedfromorganicmolecules:mayusefossilfuelOnlywasteiswatervaporLawsnotratifiedbyUSBaselConventionontheControloftheTranboundaryMovementsofHazardousWastesKyotoProtocol:cutgreenhousegasemissions

ResourceUtilizationConservationPreservationTomakesuretheusedoesnotexceedregenerationEnsureperpetuation,wnoconcerntomonetaryvalueRenewableresourcesNonrenewableresourcesPlants(50yrs),animals,soil(1inch/500yrs)Minerals,fossilsfuelsconsumptionProductionday-to-dayuseofresourcessuchasfood,clothing,andhousingUseofsourcesforprofits.E.g.sellfishTraditionalagricultureTraditionalsubsistenceagriculture:enoughfoodforonefamily'ssurvivalSlashandburn-->deforestationFederalInsecticide,Fungicide,andRodenticideAct(FIFRA):toapprovepesticidesIntegratedpestmanagement:keeppestpopulationtoeconomicallyviablelevelIntroducenaturalinsectpredators,intercropping,mulchtocontrolweeds,diversifycrops,croprotation,releasepheromone/hormoneinterrupters,usetraps,constructbarriersGeneticallyengineeredplantsGoldenricecontainsvitaminAandironRice,wheat,cornGeneticengineering:divertmorephotosyntheticproducts(phytosynthate)tograinbiomassratherthanplantbodybiomassPlantationfarming:tropicaldevelopingcountries;atypeofindustrializedagriculture;amonoculturecashcropexportedtodevelopednationscontourplowingCropsplowedacrosshillside--preventserosionTerracingReduceserosion/runoffNo-tillb/csoillosescarbonduringplowing-->releasesCO2Crop-rotationIntercropping/stripcroppingPreventserosionGreenrevolutionGreenmovementfarmingconservationOldgrowthforest:neverbeencutordisturbedforhundredsofyrs;incrediblebiodiversitySecondgrowthforest95%offorestsarenaturallyoccurring;therestareplantations/treefarms--sameage;forcommercialSilviculture:forestforharvestingtimberClear-cutting:fast-growingplants(pine)Uneven-agedmanagementSelectivecutting:fortreesthattakelongertogrow/interestedinspecifictypesShelter-woodcutting:maturetreescutover10-20yrs;leavessomematuretreestoreseedLawsWildernessAct:road-freeareasWildandScenicRiversActForestfiresSurfacefires:protectforestsfrommoreharmfulfiresbyremovingunderbrushanddeadmaterialsCrownfires:hugethreat;spreadquicklyandhightemperatureGroundfires:inbogs/swamps;originatingfromsurfacefires;difficulttodetectandextinguishOceanresources12-milelimitfromshore-->200-milefromshoreEndangeredaquaticecosystemsCoralreefs:smallanimals(cnidarians)interactwalgae(zooxanthellae)Mangroveswamp:threatenedbyshrimpaquacultureanddegradationofWesterncoastlinesMetallicmineralsNonmetallicmineralsextractedNoextractionzincSalt,gemsOre:arock/mineralfromwhichavaluablesubstanceisextractedataprofitCoal-mining:depositionofironpyriteandsulfur-->acidminedrainageExtractinggold:cyanideGangue:wastematerial;Tailings:pilesofganguesStripminingStripoverburdentoexposeaseamofmineralore;practicalwhenoreisclosetothesurface--usedforcoal-miningLeastexpensive/dangerousbutlargeimpactonenvironmentMountaintopremoval:transformssummitsanddestroysecosystemsShaftmining:verticaltunnelsMinewasteusedfor:concreteforbuildings,fillforroadgrading

EarthEarthCoreSolidinner(nickelandiron,solidduetopressures)Moltenouter(ironandsulfur,semi-solidduetolower-pressure)Mantle-solidrockAsthenosphere:slowlyflowingrockLithosphereRigiduppermantleCrustTectonicplatesConsistsonlyofoceanfloor:NazcaplateContainbothcontinentalandoceanic:NAplatePacificplateisthelargestplatePlateboundariesConvergent:twoplatespushedtowardeachother;oneofthempusheddeepintothemantleDivergent:moveawayfromeachother-->gapfilledwithmagma(moltenrock),newcrustformedwhenitcoolsTransformfault:slidefromsidetosideSoilAbiotic/bioticClay<silt<sandAciditymost4--8(solubilityofnutrients)Moreacidic-->HgandAlcanleachintogroundwater(AldamagesthegillsoffishandcausessuffocationFormationPhysical/mechanicalweathering:bywindandwaterChemicalweathering:interactionsbt/waterandgases,andthebedrock.E.g.rustformedbyiron/metalinteractingwwaterBiologicalweathering:e.g.treerootsgrowing/expandingthrurocksLayersO:organic;

Humus

formedbydecompositionoforganicmaterialA:topsoil;plantgrowth;zoneofleachingB:zoneofilluviation(dissolvedmaterialmovesfromhighersoiltolowersoilduetogravityofwater)C:largerrock;notmuchweatheringR:bedrockLoamy:sameamountofthreetextures;bestforplantgrowthMostfertilesoilare

aggregatesMonoculture:canbepreventedbycroprotationGreenRevolutionSalinizationinover-irrigatedsoilLanddegradation:preventedbydripirrigationLawsSoilandwaterconservationactFoodsecurityact:preventedconversionofwetlandstononwetlandsAtmosphereTroposphere:majorityofwatervaporandclouds;greenhousegasTropopause:temperatureincreaseswaltitudeStratosphere:ozoneMesosphere:Thermosphere/lonosphere:thinnest;aurora;ionization;reflectsradiowavesEarthevenlyheatedb/cMotionofairastheresultofsolarheatingRotationofearthPropertiesofair,water,andlandPrevailingwinds:windsmovingnortharedeflectedtoright/east--

CorioliseffectDewpoint:watervaporcondensestoliquid--clouds,precipitationWind