大學(xué)英語(yǔ)畢業(yè)論文(全英文)-Exploratory-Practice-of-Supportive-Error

Exploratory

Practice

of

Supportive

Error【Abstract】Error

correction

not

only

involves

learners’

linguistic

competence,

but

also

their

affect,

which

plays

a

crucial

part

in

language

acquisition.

Based

on

psycholinguistic

interactionist

theory

and

social

interactionist

theory,

the

present

research

aims

to

explore

the

strategies

for

supportive

error

correction

in

college

EFL

classroom,

which

help

the

students’

language

learning

by

correcting

their

errors

and

providing

positive

support

to

students’

affect

as

well.【Key

Words】classroom

interaction;error

correction;affect1.

Introduction

Research

on

classroom

SLA

shows

that

teacher-student

interaction

creates

optimum

environments

to

act

on

learners’

internal

mechanisms

and

therefore

facilitates

L2

learning

(Long,

1996；Swain,

1995).

Feedback,

as

an

important

part

of

classroom

interaction,

is

provided

by

the

teacher

to

make

evaluations

of

and

give

comments

on

students’

performance.

The

present

paper

focuses

on

error

correction,

which

specifically

refers

to

teachers’

feedback

to

students’

errors.

Research

has

demonstrated

that

error

correction

is

a

quite

complicated

issue.

On

the

one

hand,

it

works

for

language

learning

by

the

assumption

of

calling

learners’

attention

to

the

differences

between

their

interlanguage

and

target

language,

but

on

the

other

hand,

the

frequent

error

correction

by

the

teacher

may

create

a

sense

of

failure

and

frustration

among

students.

To

break

through

this

dilemma,

the

present

research

attempts

to

explore

the

strategies

for

supportive

error

correction,

which

help

the

students’

learning

by

correcting

their

errors

and

providing

positive

support

to

students’affect

as

well.

The

research

is

based

on

two

related

but

different

types

of

interactionist

theories:

Psycholinguistic

interactionist

theory,

which

explains

the

relationship

between

error

correction

and

language

acquisition;

and

social

interactionist

theory,

which

focuses

on

error

correction

and

the

learners’affect.

2.

Theories2.1

Psycholinguistic

interactionist

theoriesOne

of

the

most

influential

hypotheses

concerned

with

the

relationship

between

interaction

and

learners’

linguistic

needs

is

Long’s

Interaction

Hypothesis

(IH).

The

early

version

of

IH

(1985)

is

closely

associated

with

Krashen’s

(1985)

Input

Hypothesis

which

claims

that

comprehensible

input

is

one

of

the

key

elements

in

second

or

foreign

language

development.

In

1996,

Long

offers

his

revised

version

of

IH,

which

highlights

the

contribution

of

the

learners’

internal

mechanisms,

negotiation

and

negative

evidence

to

L2

learning.

According

to

IH,

Interaction

can

contribute

to

acquisition

through

the

provision

of

negative

evidence

and

through

opportunities

for

modified

output.

As

error

correction

“constitutes

attempt

to

supply

‘negative

evidence’

in

the

form

of

feedback

that

draws

learners’

attention

to

the

error

they

have

made”

(Ellis,

1994:

584),

it

can

thereby

trigger

learners’

internal

mechanisms,

which

may

further

result

in

modified

output.

Swain’s

(1985,

1995)

Output

Hypothesis

identifies

the

functions

of

output

where

accuracy

is

concerned.

It

helps

learners

to

notice

the

gap

between

what

they

want

to

say

and

what

they

can

say

and

enables

learners

to

test

out

hypotheses

about

the

target

language.

One

way

in

which

this

occurs

is

through

the

modified

output

that

learners

produce

following

error

correction.

2.2

Social

Interactionist

theoriesSocial

interactionist

theories

advance

the

role

of

interaction

on

L2

acquisition

with

respect

to

affective

and

cognitive

environments

which

are

helpful

to

learners’

second

language

development.

The

key

construct

in

interactionist

theories

is

mediation,

which

refers

to

“the

part

played

by

other

significant

people

in

the

learners’

lives,

who

enhance

their

learning

by

selecting

and

shaping

the

learning

experiences

presented

to

them”.

(Williams

&

Burden,

2000:

40).

For

Vygotsky

and

his

followers,

the

means

of

mediation

can

be

a

system

of

symbols,

notably

language,

so

in

language

classrooms,

the

mediation

can

take

the

form

of

conversational

interaction

which

includes

teacher

error

correction

or

various

other

kinds

of

teacher

assistance.Through

mediation,

learners

are

able

to

transform

skills

that

lie

in

the

zone

of

proximal

development

(ZPD,

a

terminology

developed

by

Vygotsky

(1978)

to

refer

to

the

area

of

learners’

potential

development).

According

to

social

interactionist

theories,

the

functions

of

mediation

are

initially

performed

in

collaborating

with

others,

typically

through

interacting

with

some

other

person,

and

then

are

subsequently

performed

independently.

One

way

in

which

it

occurs

in

L2

acquisition

is

through

instructional

interaction

which

provides

scaffolding.

At

one

level,

scaffolding

serves

as

the

means

by

which

teacher

assists

learners

to

produce

linguistic

forms

that

lie

outside

their

existing

competence.

Furthermore,

it

refers

more

broadly

to

the

social,

cognitive

and

affective

support

that

interactants

afford

each

other.Wood,

Bruner

and

Ross

(1976)

identify

the

following

features

of

scaffolding:

1.Recruiting

interest

in

the

task2.Simplifying

the

task3.Maintaining

pursuit

of

the

goal4.Marking

critical

features

and

discrepancies

between

what

has

been

produced

and

the

ideal

solution

5.Controlling

frustration

during

problem

solving

6.Demonstrating

an

idealized

version

of

the

act

to

be

performed.

3.

Method

As

exploratory

practice,

which

language

teachers

conduct

in

their

own

classrooms

to

understand

the

areas

of

language

teaching

and

learning

that

they

wish

to

explore（Allwright,1997）,

the

present

study

on

supportive

error-correction

is

conducted

by

the

author

as

an

English

teacher

in

her

own

classroom.

To

provide

error

correction

in

an

effective

and

non-threatening

way,

a

number

of

theoretically

grounded

error-correction

strategies

were

adopted

in

practice

to

examine

whether

and

how

the

strategies

used

give

supportive

effect

both

in

students’

affect

and

their

language

learning.

The

participants

for

this

study

included

the

author

and

the

students

in

a

college

EFL

classroom.

The

students

were

second-year

non-English

majors.

Most

of

them

have

learned

English

for

seven

to

nine

years,

so

they

were

regarded

as

intermediate

English

learners.

The

present

study

mainly

used

audio-recording

to

collect

the

data.

The

College

English

Lesson

in

the

author’s

own

class

was

audio-recorded

for

one

term

and

the

error-correction

part

was

transcribed

and

analyzed.

Although

the

students

were

aware

of

recording,

I

told

them

it

was

only

for

the

purpose

of

my

research

and

would

not

be

used

for

judging

or

grading

their

performance

in

classroom,

so

there

was

no

stressful

influence

on

the

classroom

atmosphere

or

students’

performance.

4.

Results

and

DiscussionThe

strategies

I

adopted

mainly

serve

two

purposes:

First,

to

help

the

students

notice

and

correct

their

errors;

Second,

to

encourage

and

support

the

students

in

affect.

Four

basic

strategies

were

proved

to

be

beneficial

for

L2

learning

in

my

classroom:A.

The

“sandwich”

method

can

create

a

positively

affective

environment

for

error

correction“Sandwich”

is

a

metaphor

for

the

“positive

–

negative

–positive”

method.

Positive

feedbacks

are

provided

before

and

after

negative

feedback

to

create

a

warm

climate

for

error

correction

in

classroom

and

encourage

students

to

produce

more

output

without

fear

of

making

errors.Excerpt

1

1.T:

…and

wasn’t

the

slightest

bit

shy,

not

the

slightest,

what

does

it

mean

here?

Can

you

guess?

F2,

please.2.F2:

[Silence]3.T:

It

means

I

was

shy

or

not

shy?4.F2:

I

don’t

know.5.T:

Ok,

I

think

the

phrase

is

a

little

bit

complicated

for

you,

but

can

you

guess

its

meaning

from

the

context?

“I

was

bragging

and

I

wasn’t

the

slightest

bit

shy

or

self-restrained”,

do

you

remember

the

meaning

of

“brag”?6.F2:

Talk

something

big

.7.T:

Good,

the

meaning

is

right,

but

please

don’t

add

“something”,

it

is

a

fixed

phrase

here,

talk

big.8.F2:

Talk

big.9.T:

Good,

Exactly,

so

if

someone

likes

to

talk

big,

is

he

a

shy

person

or

not?10.F2:

Not

shy.11.T:

Ok,

very

good.

and

here,

“not

the

slightest

bit”

contains

the

negative

meaning

“

not

at

all”,

so

“not

the

slightest

bit

shy”

means12.F2:

Not

shy

at

all.13.T:

Exactly.

So

you

see

you

are

capable

of

guessing

the

unfamiliar

words

form

the

context!

And

next

time

when

you

meet

some

difficult

words

in

reading,

just

try

this

way,

ok?14.F2:

Ok.In

excerpt

1,

when

the

student

made

an

error

(turn

6),

I

first

acknowledged

that

“Good,

the

meaning

is

right”,

then

I

corrected

her

errors

to

remind

her

of

the

difference

between

her

hypothesis

and

target

language

(turn

7).

After

she

realized

the

gap

(turn

8),

I

gave

her

a

positive

feedback

to

reinforce

the

correct

one

as

well

as

to

prevent

her

form

being

discouraged

by

the

negative

feedback

before

(turn

9).Besides,

the

whole

process

of

excerpt

1

can

be

regarded

as

a

“positive-

negative-positive”

one:

when

the

student

failed

to

answer

the

questions

for

twice,

I

helped

her

to

control

the

frustration

by

telling

her

it

was

due

to

the

complexity

of

the

phrase

rather

than

her

English

level

(turn

5)

,

then

I

scaffolded

her

to

overcome

the

difficulty

by

providing

her

more

clues

(turns

5,

7,

9,

11),

and

at

last

I

gave

her

the

praise

to

encourage

her

to

try

this

way

to

solve

the

problem

by

herself

in

the

future.

Therefore,

the

supportive

feedbacks

in

the

whole

process

created

a

positively

affective

environment

for

the

students

to

produce

the

correct

answer,

develop

cognition

and

become

more

confident

in

solving

the

problem

independently

in

the

future.

Another

method

to

avoid

the

negative

effect

of

error

correction

is

to

provide

error

correction

in

an

implicit

way.

B.

Implicit

but

tactic

correction

of

students’

errors

can

avoid

negative

effect

while

helping

L2

learning.As

mentioned

above,

too

many

negative

evaluations

can

lead

to

the

frustration

among

students

Excerpt

2

1.T:

Do

you

have

any

wishes

on

your

birthday

today?

2.F15:

Yes,

I

wish

I

will

pass

pass

CET-6.3.T:

Ok,

you

wish

you

would

[stressed

and

paused],

pass

CET-6.

good,

ambitious.

What

else?4.F15

I

wish,

I

would

be

happy

everyday.5.T:

Ok,

that’s

very

good,

I

hope

so,

happy

birthday

and

happy

everyday.6.F15:

Thank

you.This

example

is

a

teacher

correction

in

an

implicit

way,

in

which

I

corrected

the

student’s

error

by

recast,

that

is,

I

repeated

her

original

meaning

with

changed

form

(turn

3)

and

I

responded

to

the

content

(by

saying

“good”

and

“ambitious”

in

turn3),withholding

the

explicit

comment

on

the

grammatical

form.

This

implicit

correct

proved

to

be

effective

in

this

example:

the

student

produced

the

correct

response

(turn

5).

While

reformulating

the

students

utterance

(turn

3),

I

stressed

the

changed

part

to

get

the

student

to

notice

the

gap

between

her

interlanguage

form

and

the

target

form,

and

gave

a

positive

feedback

for

the

content

of

her

utterance

to

prevent

the

student

from

feeling

frustrated

at

her

attempt

to

use

the

target

language.

After

that,

I

asked

“what

else”

to

get

her

to

produce

more

utterance

within

the

similar

topic,

which

actually

gave

her

opportunity

to

modify

her

utterance.

Through

this

supportive

way,

the

interaction

was

sustained

and

the

student

was

encouraged

to

modify

her

‘transitional’

rules

of

her

developing

grammar,

which

would

facilitate

her

language

learning

and

enhance

her

affect

as

well.Besides

the

teacher-correction

method,

teacher

can

also

ask

students

to

correct

their

own

errors.C.

The

teacher

plays

an

important

role

as

scaffolder

to

encourage

students

to

correct

their

own

errors.By

encouraging

students

to

correct

errors

by

themselves,

teacher

can

invite

students’

active

participation

in

the

problem

solving

process

so

that

students

will

produce

more

output

and

feel

more

confident

in

controlling

of

their

errors.

During

this

process,

teacher

plays

a

crucial

role

because

they

have

to

assist

the

students’

self-correcting

in

an

appropriate

way.

Teachers

can

ask

students

to

correct

the

errors

in

an

explicit

but

non-threatening

way

or

they

can

achieve

by

some

implicit

methods.

One

common

way

for

indirect

method

is

simply

asking

the

students

to

repeat

his

or

her

own

utterance.

However,

sometimes

the

general

questioning

will

not

elicit

the

correct

one,

so

the

teacher

needs

to

act

as

a

“scaffolder”

by

indicating

the

location

or

the

nature

of

the

error.

Excerpt

3

shows

teacher’s

indication

through

a

half-said

sentence.Excerpt

3

1.T:

What#39;s

your

New

Year#39;s

resolution?2.M13:

I

hope

I

can

pass

all

the

exams.

3.T:

Ok,

good,

what

else?4.M13:

Then

second,

en..

I

,

I

will

try

my

best

to

let

our

class

become,

become

more

and

more

better

.5.T:

What?6.M13:

En,

As

a

monitor,

I

think

I

will

try

best

to

let

our

class

become

more

and

more

better.7.T:

Become

more

and

more8.M13:

Better,

oh.

no,

er,

better

and

better.In

this

example,

the

student

failed

to

correct

the

error

at

first

(

turn

6)

as

he

took

my

implicit

correction

(turn

5)

for

making

the

meaning

clearly.

So

I

scaffolded

him

to

locate

the

error

by

repeating

part

of

his

wrong

utterance.

Then

through

his

own

repetition

of

the

rest

of

the

error,

he

noticed

the

difference

between

his

erroneous

form

and

the

target

form

and

finally

modified

his

speech

by

himself.

The

teacher

can

also

indicate

the

nature

of

the

error

made

to

help

the

students

to

notice

the

gap,

for

example,

in

excerpt

3,

the

teacher

could

also

tell

the

student

“here

should

be

the

subjunctive

mood”

to

ask

the

students

to

correct

the

error.

D.

Students’

individualities

and

ZPD

should

be

concernedSo

far

as

concerned,

different

methods

of

error

correction

scaffolds

students

linguistically

and

affectively

in

their

language

performance.

However,

teachers

should

also

take

Students’

individualities

into

consideration

when

they

decide

which

method

is

the

appropriate

to

choose.

For

example,

the

positive

feedbacks

in

“sandwich”

method

are

especially

useful

for

low-achieving

students

and

shy

students;

but

it

is

also

easily

devalued

through

overuse

for

some

students.

As

Ur

(1996,

248)

points

out,

learners

have

different

opinions

on

feedback,

“a

teacher

correction

that

seems

to

an

observer

a

humiliating

‘put-down’

may

not

be

perceived

as

such

by

the

learner

to

whom

it

was

addressed;

or

an

apparently

gentle,

tactful

one

may

give

offence.”

While

adopting

the

implicit

correction

strategies,

teachers

also

have

to

be

careful

to

consider

students’

individualities

and

ZDP.

For

example,

F15

in

excerpt

2

is

an

introvert,

careful

and

sensitive

girl

who

works

hard

in

English

and

usually

performs

well

in

classroom.

So

recast

was

appropriately

used

here

to

create

a

comfortable

environment

for

her,

in

which

she

could

quickly

“notice”

the

information

in

my

feedback

and

her

cognition

was

successfully

activated.

But

in

another

case,

a

lower-achieving

student

just

ignored

my

recast,

just

as

follows:Excerpt

41.T:

What

did

you

do

in

the

party?

2.F1:

We

danced

and

we

we

drink.3.T:

You

drank?

Really?

That#39;s

crazy.

4.F1:Yes,

and

we

eat

a

lot.Though

I

gave

a

recast

in

turn

3,

the

student

seemed

not

to

have

noticed

it,

as

she

continued

with

another

turn

containing

the

same

error.

This

result

is

consistent

with

the

results

of

the

studies

by

some

researchers

(e.g.

Mackey

&

Philp,

1998)

who

suggest

that

recasts

may

allow

more

advanced

learners

to

infer

negative

evidence

but

may

pass

unnoticed

by

less

advanced

learners.

According

to

Vygotsky

(1978),

the

extent

to

which

mediation

can

facilitate

learning

is

constrained

by

learner’s

ZPD.

Therefore,

teachers

should

give

students

appropriate

ways

concerning

their

ZPD

and

individualities.

For

example,

teachers

can

provide

more

assistance

for

students

who

find

it

hard

to

correct

errors

by

themselves

and

sometimes

even

use

explicit

but

supportive

teacher-correction

to

simplify

the

task

and

ease

their

cognitive

processing

pressure.

For

students

who

are

capable

of

self-correction,

teachers

can

encourage

them

to

apply

the

rule

they’ve

learned

to

correct

their

own

errors,

thus

finally

“enable

them

to

become

independent

thinkers

and

problem-solvers”

(Williams

&

Burden,

2000:

68).5.

ConclusionError

correction

not

only

involves

learners’

linguistic

competence,

but

also

their

affect,

which

plays

a

crucial

part

in

language

acquisition.

Therefore,

teachers

should

adopt

appropriate

strategies

to

create

a

supportive

environment

for

error

correction.

The

results

of

the

research

will

hopefully

shed

light

on

future

pedagogical

decisions

and

improvements

for

error

correction

to

play

a

more

effective

and

facilitative

role

in

learners’

language

acquisition

and

their

affect

in

general.

【References】[1]

Allwright,

D.

&

R.

Lenzuen，1997.

Exploratory

Practice:

Work

at

the

Cultura

Inglesa,

Rio

de

Janeiro,

[2]

Ellis,

R.

1994

.The

Study

of

Second

Language

Acquisition.

上海:

上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社.

[3]

Krashen,

S.

D.

1985.

The

Input

Hypothesis:

Issues

and

Implications.

New

York:

Longman

Group.[4]

Long,

M.

H.

1985.

Input

and

Second

Language

Acquisition

Theory.

In

S.

M.

Gass

&

C.

G.

Madden

(eds).Input

in

second

language

acquisition.

Rowley,

[5]

Long,

M.

H.

1996.

The

Role

of

the

Linguistic

Environment

in

Second

Language

Acquisition.

In

W.

C.

Ritchie

&

T.

K.

Bhatia

(eds.).

Handbook

of

Second

[6]

Mackey.

A.

&

Philp.

J.

1998.

Conversational

Interaction

and

Second

Language

Development:

Recasts,

Responses

and

Red

Herrings?

The

Modern

Language

Journal.

82:

338-356.[7]

Swain,

M.

1985.

Communicative

Competence:

Some

Roles

of

Comprehensible

Input

and

Comprehensible

Output

in

Its

Development.

In

S.

M.

Gass

&

C.

G.

Madden

(Eds.).

Input

in

Second

Language

Acquisition.Rowley,

MA:

Newbury

House.

[8]

Swain,

M.

1995.

Three

Functions

of

Output

in

Second

Language

Learning.

In

G.

Cook

&

B.

Seidlhofer

(eds.),

Principle

and

Practice

in

Applied

Linguistics.

Studies

in

Honour

of

H.

G.

Widdowson.

上海：上海外語(yǔ)教育出版社.[9]

Ur,

P.

吳一安（導(dǎo)讀）.1996.

A

Course

in

Language

Teaching:

Practice

and

Theory.

北京：外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社.[10]

Vygotsky,

L.

1978.

Mind

and

Society:

The

Development

of

Higher

Psychological

Processes.

Cambridge,

Mass.:

Harvard

[11]

Williams,

M.,

&

Burden,

R.

L.

劉學(xué)惠（導(dǎo)讀）.

2000.

Psychology

for

language

teachers:

A

social

constructivist

approach.

北京：外語(yǔ)教學(xué)與研究出版社.[12]

Wood,

D.Bruner

and

G.

Ross.

1976.

The

Role

of

Tutoring

in

Problem

Solving.

Journal

of

Child

Psychology

and

Psychiatry

17:

89

–

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