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PoweringtheIndustrialInBritainoneofthemostdramaticchangesoftheIndustrialRevolutionwastheharnessingofpower.UntilthereignofGeorgeⅢ(1760-1820),availablesourcesofpowerforworkandtravelhadnotincreasedsincetheMiddleAges.Therewerethreesourcesofpower:animalorhumanmuscles;thewind,operatingonsailorwindmill;andrunningwater.Onlythelastofthesewassuitedatalltothecontinuousoperatingofmachines,andalthoughwaterpoweraboundedinLancashireandScotlandandrangrainmillsaswellastextilemills,ithadonegreatdisadvantage:streamsflowedwherenatureintendedthemto,andwater-drivenfactorieshadtobelocatedontheirbankswhetherornotthelocationwasdesirableforotherreasons.Furthermore,eventhemostreliablewaterpowervariedwiththeseasonsanddisappearedinadrought.Thenewageofmachinery,inshort,couldnothavebeenbornwithoutanewsourceofbothmovableandconstantpower.Thesourcehadlongbeenknownbutnotexploited.Earlyintheeighteenthcentury,apumphadcomeintouseinwhichexpanding raisedapistoninacylinder,andatmosphericpressurebroughtitdownagainwhenthe condensedinsidethecylindertoformavacuum.This“atmosphericengine,”inventedbyThomasSaveryandvastlyimprovedbyhispartner,Thomas en,embodiedrevolutionaryprinciples,butitwassoslowandwastefuloffuelthatitcouldnotbeemployedoutsidethecoalminesforwhichithadbeendesigned.Inthe1760s,JamesWattperfectedaseparatecondenserforthe ,sothatthecylinderdidnothavetobecooledateverystroke;thenhedevisedawaytomakethepistonturnawheelandthusconvertreciprocating(backandforth)motionintorotarymotion.Hetherebytransformedaninefficientpumpoflimiteduseintoa engineofathousanduses.Thefinalstepcamewhen wasintroducedintothecylindertodrivethepistonbackwardaswellasforward,therebyincreasingthespeedoftheengineandcuttingitsfuelconsumption. enginesoonshowedwhatitcoulddo.Itliberatedindustryfromdependenceonrunningwater.Theengineeliminatedwaterintheminesbydrivingefficientpumps,whichmadepossibledeeperanddeepermining.ThereadyavailabilityofcoalinspiredWilliamMurdochduringthe1790stodevelopthefirstnewformofnighttimeilluminationtobediscoveredinamillenniumandahalf.Coalgasrivaledsmokyoillampsandflickeringcandles,andearlyinthenewcentury,well-to-doLondonersgrewaccustomedtogaslithousesandevenstreets.Ironmanufacturers,whichhadstarvedforfuelwhiledependingoncharcoal,alsobenefitedfromever-increasingsofcoal:blastfurnaceswith bellowsturnedoutmoreironandsteelforthenewmachinery.becamethemotiveoftheIndustrialRevolutionascoalandironoreweretherawBy1800morethanathousandengineswereinuseintheBritishIsles,andBritainretainedavirtualmonopolyonengineproductionuntilthe1830s.powerdidnotmerelyspincottonandrolliron;earlyinthenewcentury,italsomultipliedtentimesovertheamountofpaperthatasingleworkercouldproduceinaday.Atthesametime,operatorsofthefirstprintingpressesrunbyratherthanbyhandfounditpossibletpr uceathousandpagesinanhourratherthanthirty. alsopromisedtoeliminateatransportationproblemnotfullysolvedbyeitherc boatsorturnpikes.Boatscouldcarryheavyweights,butcscouldnotcrosshillyterrain;turnpikescouldcrossthehills,buttheroadbedscouldnotstandupundergreatweights.Theseproblemsneededstillanothersolution,andtheingredientsforitlaycloseathand.Insomeindustrialregions,heavilyladenwagons,withflangedwheels,werebeinghauledbyhorsesalongmetalrails;andthestationaryenginewaspuffinginthefactoryandmine.Anothergenerationpassedbeforeinventorssucceededincombiningtheseingredients,byputtingtheengineonwheelsandthewheelsontherails,soastoprovideamachinetotaketheceofthehorse.Thustherailroadagesprangfromwhathadalreadyhappenedintheeighteenthcentury.

塞下降，這一由賽佛瑞發(fā)明并由他的同伴紐科門對(duì)其進(jìn)行改良的“大氣引擎”，被賦予了性的工作原理。但其效率低下且浪費(fèi)，無法在煤礦以外的地區(qū)使用，這與最初的設(shè)計(jì)期望背道而馳。十八世紀(jì)六十年代，瓦特完善了分離的，1930年代以前，英19世紀(jì)早期，蒸汽機(jī)的使用同樣大大提高了造紙的效率，蒸汽動(dòng)力生產(chǎn)的產(chǎn)量，101就能完成手動(dòng)印刷機(jī)30小時(shí)完成的工作量。蒸汽動(dòng)力還實(shí)現(xiàn)了運(yùn)河及公路無法完全解決的問題。貨船的確可以負(fù)荷重物，但人們無法利用運(yùn)河在多山的區(qū)域?qū)崿F(xiàn)，雖然利用公路可以穿實(shí)現(xiàn)在多山區(qū)域的，但路面的承載能WilliamIn1769inalittletowninOxfordshire,England,achildwiththeveryordinarynameofWilliamSmithwasbornintothepoorfamilyofavillageblacksmith.Hereceivedrudimentaryvillageschooling,butmostlyheroamedhisuncle'sfarmcollectingthefossilsthatweresoabundantintherocksoftheCotswoldhills.Whenhegrewolder,WilliamSmithtaughthimselfsurveyingfrombooksheboughtwithhissmallsavings,andattheageofeighteenhewasapprenticedtoasurveyorofthelocalparish.Hethenproceededtoteachhimselfgeology,andwhenhewastwenty-four,hewenttoworkforthethatwasexcavatingtheSomersetCoalCinthesouthofThiswasbeforethe otive,andcbuildingwasatitsheight.Thecompaniesbuildingthec stotransportcoalneededsurveyorstohelpthemfindthecoaldepositsworthminingaswellastodeterminethebestcoursesforthecs.ThisjobgaveSmithanopportunitytostudythefreshrockoutcropscreatedbythenewlydugc.HelaterworkedonsimilarjobsacrossthelengthandbreadthofEngland,allthewhilestudyingthenewlyrevealedstrataandcollectingallthefossilshecouldfind.Smithusedmailcoachestotravelasmuchas10,000peryear.In1815hepublishedthefirstmoderngeologicalmap,“AMapoftheStrataofEnglandandWaleswithaPartofScotland,”amapsometiculouslyresearchedthatitcanstillbeusedtoday.In1831whenSmithwasfinallyrecognizedbytheGeologicalSocietyofLondonasthe“fatherofEnglishgeology,”itwasnotonlyforhismapsbutalsoforsomethingevenmoreimportant.Eversincepeoplehadbeguntocatalogthestratainparticularoutcrops,therehadbeenthehopethatthesecouldsomehowbeusedtocalculategeologicaltime.Butasmoreandmoreaccumulationsofstratawerecatalogedinmoreandmoreces,itbecameclearthatthesequencesofrockssometimesdifferedfromregiontoregionandthatnorocktypewasevergoingto eareliabletimemarkerthroughouttheworld.Evenwithouttheproblemofregionaldifferences,rockspresentadifficultyasuniquetimemarkers.Quartzisquartz—asiliconionsurroundedbyfouroxygenions—there’snodifferenceatallbetweentwo-million-year-oldPleistocenequartzandCambrianquartzcreatedover500millionyearsago.AshecollectedfossilsfromstratathroughoutEngland,Smithbegantoseethatthefossilstoldadifferentstoryfromtherocks.Particularlyintheyoungerstrata,therockswereoftensosimilarthathehadtroubledistinguishingthestrata,butheneverhadtroublelingthefossilsapart.Whilerockbetweentwoconsistentstratamightinonecebeshaleandinanothersandstone,thefossilsinthatshaleorsandstonewerealwaysthesame.Somefossilsenduredthroughsomanymillionsofyearsthattheyappearinmanystrata,butothersoccuronlyinafewstrata,andafewspecieshadtheirbirthsandextinctionswithinoneparticularstratum.FossilsarethusidentifyingmarkersforparticularperiodsinEarth'shistory.NotonlycouldSmithidentifyrockstratabythefossilstheycontained,hecouldalsoseeapatternemerging:certainfossilsalwaysappearinmoreancientsediments,whileothersbegintobeseenasthestrata emorerecent.Byfollowingthefossils,SmithwasabletoputallthestrataofEngland'searthintorelativetemporalsequence.Aboutthesametime,GeorgesCuviermadethesamediscoverywhilestudyingtherocksaroundParis.Soonitwasrealizedthatthisprincipleoffaunal(animal)successionwasvalidnotonlyinEnglandorFrancebutvirtuallyeverywhere.Itwasactuallyaprincipleoffloralsuccessionaswell,becausentsshowedthesametransformationthroughtimeasdidfauna.LimestonemaybefoundintheCambrianor—300millionyearslater—intheJurassicstrata,butatrilobite—theubiquitousmarinearthropodthathaditsbirthintheCambrian—willneverbefoundinJurassicstrata,noradinosaurintheCambrian.·在1769年英國(guó)牛津郡的一個(gè)小鎮(zhèn)上，一個(gè)小男孩出生在村里一戶窮鐵匠家，他 測(cè)量，18歲的時(shí)，成 了地質(zhì)學(xué)，24歲的時(shí)，他開始為挖掘英格蘭南部SomersetCoal運(yùn)河那家公司工作。乘著郵件馬車每年行進(jìn)將近10000英里。1815年，他繪制了第一張現(xiàn)代到了1831年，最終被倫敦地質(zhì)學(xué)會(huì)認(rèn)可，并賦予他“英國(guó)地質(zhì)學(xué)之父”的以在距今年代較近的地層中發(fā)現(xiàn)。通過追蹤化石，將英國(guó)范圍內(nèi)所有的地，也不可InfantileWhatdoyourememberaboutyourlifebeforeyouwerethree?Fewpeoplecanrememberanythingthathappenedtothemintheirearlyyears.Adults'memoriesofthenextfewyearsalsotendtobescanty.Mostpeoplerememberonlyafewevents—usuallyonesthatweremeaningfulanddistinctive,suchasbeinghospitalizedorasibling’sbirth.Howmightthisinabilitytorecallearlyexperiencesbeexined?Thesheerpassageoftimedoesnotaccountforit;adultshaveexcellentrecognitionofpicturesofpeoplewhoattendedhighschoolwiththem35yearsearlier.Anotherseeminglyusibleexnation—thatinfantsdonotformenduringmemoriesatthispointindevelopment—alsoisincorrect.Childrentwoandahalftothreeyearsoldrememberexperiencesthatoccurredintheirfirstyear,andelevenmontholdsremembersomeeventsayearlater.Nordoesthehypothesisthatinfantileamnesiareflectsrepression—orholdingback—ofuallychargedepisodesexinthephenomenon.Whilesuchrepressionmayoccur,peoplecannotrememberordinaryeventsfromtheinfantandtoddlerperiodseither.Threeotherexnationsseemmorepromising.Oneinvolvesphysiologicalchangesrelevanttomemory.Maturationofthefrontallobesofthebraincontinuesthroughoutearlychildhood,andthispartofthebrainmaybecriticalforrememberingparticularepisodesinwaysthatcanberetrievedlater.Demonstrationsofinfants’andtoddlers'long-termmemoryhaveinvolvedtheirrepeatingmotoractivitiesthattheyhadseenordoneearlier,suchasreachinginthedarkforobjects,puttingabottleinadoll’smouth,orpullingaparttwopiecesofatoy.Thebrain’slevelofphysiologicalmaturationmaysupportthesetypesofmemories,butnotonesrequiringexplicitverbaldescriptions.Asecondexnationinvolvestheinfluenceofthesocialworldonchildren’slanguageuse.Hearingandlingstoriesabouteventsmayhelpchildrenstoreinformationinwaysthatwillendureintolaterchildhoodandadulthood.Throughhearingstorieswithaclearbeginning,middle,andendingchildrenmaylearntoextractthegistofeventsinwaysthattheywillbeabletodescribemanyyearslater.Consistentwiththisview,parentsandchildrenincreasinglyengageindiscussionsofpasteventswhenchildrenareaboutthreeyearsold.However,hearingsuchstoriesisnotsufficientforyoungerchildrentoformenduringmemories.lingsuchstoriestotwoyearoldsdoesnotseemtoproducelong-lastingverbalizablememories.Athirdlikelyexnationforinfantileamnesiainvolves patibilitiesbetweenthewaysinwhichinfantsencodeinformationandthewaysinwhicholderchildrenandadultsretrieveit.Whetherpeoplecanrememberaneventdependscriticallyonthefitbetweenthewayinwhichtheyearlierencodedtheinformationandthewayinwhichtheylaterattempttoretrieveit.Thebetterabletheistoreconstructthefromwhichthematerialwasencoded,themorelikelythatrecallwillbesuccessful.Thisviewissupportedbyavarietyoffactorsthatcancreatemismatchesbetweenveryyoungchildren'sencodingandolderchildren'sandadults'retrievalefforts.Theworldlooksverydifferenttoawhoseheadisonlytwoorthreefeetabovethegroundthantoonewhoseheadisfiveorsixfeetaboveit.Olderchildrenandadultsoftentrytor