環(huán)境工程專(zhuān)業(yè)英語(yǔ) 課件 U5L2 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA)

ProfessionalEnglishforEnvironmentalEngineeringMainContents

IntroductiontoEnvironmentalEngineeringAirPollutionandControlWaterPollutionandControlSolidWasteandDisposalEnvironmentalImpactAssessmentEnvironmentalLaws，RegulationsandSustainableDevelopmentEnvironmentalImpactAssessment

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ProfessionalEnglishforEnvironmentalEngineering

EIAisintendedtoidentifytheimpacts(bothbeneficialandadverse)ofaproposedpublicorprivatedevelopmentactivity.Often,thefocusisdominantlyenvironmental(biophysical);butpracticealsoaddressessocialandeconomicaspects.EIAismainlyusedatthelevelofspecificdevelopmentsandprojectssuchasdams,industrialplants,transportinfrastructure(e.g.airportrunwaysandroads),farmenterprises,andnaturalresourceexploitation(e.g.sandextraction).EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Purpose

Strategicenvironmentalassessment(SEA)isasistertoolappliedupstreamatthelevelofpolicies,plansandprogrammes.LikeSEA,EIAismostvaluablewhenappliedearlyintheplanningprocessforaprojectasasupporttodecision-making.Itprovidesameanstoidentifythemostenvironmentallysuitableoptionatanearlystage,thebestpracticableenvironmentaloptionandalternativestotheproposedinitiative;andthusavoidorminimizepotentiallydamagingandcostlynegativeimpacts,andmaximizepositiveimpacts.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

Purpose

EIAwasfirstintroducedintheUSAundertheNationalEnvironmentalPolicyAct(1969).Sincethenithasevolvedandavarietyofoffshootassessmenttechniqueshaveemerged(focusing,forexampleonsocial,biodiversity,environmentalhealthandcumulativeeffectsandrisk)actingasabroaderimpactassessmenttoolkit.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BackgroundFacts

MostcountrieshavenowintroducedformalEIAsystems,usuallyunderdedicatedenvironmentallegislation,andhaveintroducedEIAregulations(andoftenregulatorybodies)specifyingwhenandforwhichdevelopmentsanEIAisrequired,institutionalresponsibilitiesandprocedures,andspecificstepsandprocessestobefollowed.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BackgroundFacts

KeystagesintheEnvironmentalAssessmentprocessinclude:screening,alternatives,preliminaryassessment,scoping,mitigation,mainEIAstudyandenvironmentalimpactstatement,reviewandmonitoring.Theseneedtobemanagedsothattheyprovideinformationtodecision-makersateverystageoftheprojectplanningcycle.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

BriefDescriptionoftheMainStepsInvolvedinApplicationoftheTool

1Screening(usuallybyanEIAAuthority,orusingpublishedchecklists)—todecidewhetheranEIAisrequiredandfocusresourcesonprojectsmostlikelytohavesignificantimpact,thosewhereimpactsareuncertainandthosewhereenvironmentalmanagementinputislikelytoberequired.OfficialEIAguidelinesusuallycontainlistsorschedulesspecifyingwhichdevelopmentsrequireanEIA(e.g.always,orinparticularcircumstance).EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

2Considerationofpossiblealternatives(demand,activity,location,process&design,scheduling,inputs,‘noproject’)shouldbeundertakenbeforeachoiceismade.Someprojectsbesitespecific(e.g.inmining,extractioncanonlyoccurwereamineralissited).InsuchcasestheEIAmightfocusmoreonmeasuressuchasscale,mitigatingmeasuresandtrafficmanagement.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

3Preliminaryassessment—wherescreeningsuggestsfurtherassessmentisneededorifthereisuncertaintyaboutthenatureofpotentialimpacts.Usesrapidassessmenttechniques,butprovidessufficientdetailtoidentifykeyimpacts,theirmagnitudeandsignificance,andevaluatetheirimportancefordecision-making.IndicatesifafullEIAisneeded--involvingthefollowingsteps.EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)

StepsinEIA

4Scoping—a‘narrowing’processusuallyundertakenbyanassessmentteamtoidentifykeyissuesofconcernatanearlystageintheplanningprocessandguidethedevelopmentoftermsofreferencefortheEIA.Itaidssiteselection,identifiespossiblealternatives,andavoidsdelaysduetohavingtoassesspreviouslyunidentifiedpossibleimpacts.Scopingshouldinvolveallinterestedpartiessuchastheproponentandplanningorenvironmentalagenciesandmembersofthepublic.Theresultsdeterminethescope,depthandtermsofreferencetobedressedwithinanEnvironmentalImpactStatement(seebelow).Oncethesitefordevelopmenthasbeenselected,thenumberofissuesusuallydecreasesandattentiontodetailincreases.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—buildingonanddeepeningtheprecedingstepstopredicttheextentanmagnitudeofimpactsanddeterminetheirsignificance.Avarietyofmethodscanbeusedincluding:checklists,questionnaires,matrices,overlays,networks,modelsandsimulations.Thestudyshouldincorporateconsiderationofmitigatingmeasures—reviewingtheactionproposed/takentoprevent,avoidorminimizeactualorpotentialsignificantadverseeffectsofaproject,e.g.abandoningormodifyingaproposal,orsubstitutingtechniquesusingBATNEEC(BestAvailableTechnologyNotEntailingExcessiveCosts)suchaspollutionabatementtechniquestoreduceemissionstolegallimits.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—Iftheuncertaintiesaregreat,withthepossibilityofgraveconsequencesandnomitigatingmeasuresthentheproposeddevelopmentshouldberejected.Ifthereareuncertaintiesthatmightbereducedbyfurtherstudies,thenanapplicationcanbedeferredpendinguntilfurtherstudies.Wheremitigationisinappropriate,compensationmaybeanoption.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)5MainEIAstudy—AnEnvironmentalImpactStatement(EIS)isacomprehensivedocumentthatreportsthefindingsoftheEIAandnowoftenrequiredbylawbeforeanewprojectcanproceed.AtypicalEIS,usuallypreparedbytheprojectonbehalfoftheproponent(usuallybyconsultants),focusesontheissuesmostrelevanttodecision-making.StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Itcanbebrokendownintothreepartswithdifferentlevelsofdetail:Volume1—acomprehensiveandconcisedocumentdrawingtogetherallrelevantinformationregardingthedevelopmentproject.Non-TechnicalSummary(NTS)—abriefreportofvolume1innon-technicallanguagethatcaneasilybeunderstoodbythepublic.Volume2—avolumethatcontainsadetailedassessmentofthesignificantenvironmentaleffects(Notnecessarywhentherearenosignificanteffectseitherbeforeoraftermitigation).StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Alternativecommunicationapproachesbyalsobeappropriatewhereliteracyorsocial/culturalbarrierspreventlocalpeopleaccessingtheEIS.(e.g.locallanguagevideos,presentations,radioprogrammes,meetingsandworkshops)StepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)6Review—toassesstheadequacyoftheEIAtodecision-makingandconsideritsimplicationsforprojectimplementation(insomecountries,suchreviewisaformalandindependentprocess)7Monitoringofprojectimplementationandoperation(includingdecommissioning),andeventuallyanauditoftheprojectafteritscompletionStepsinEIA

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)AnEnvironmentalImpactStatementthatprovidesclear,understandable,relevantinformationtoinfluencethefinaldecisiononthedevelopmentproject.Abetterdevelopmentproject(minimizednegativeimpacts,maximizedpositiveimpacts,optimallocation,bestalternativeselected,etc.)ExpectedOutputs

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Foramajorproject,anEIAmaytakeconsiderabletime,manpowerandresources.ThefirstfourstagesareveryimportanttodeterminetherequiredextentandfocusoftheEIA.BasicRequirements

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Predictionofimpactsreliesondatafromavarietyofsources:physical,biologicalandsociological.Itsqualitywilloftenimposeconstraintsonaccuracyandreliabilityofpredictions.Wheredataislimited,qualitativetechniqueswillneedtobeused.SkillsandCapacity—oftenamultidisciplinaryteamisrequired-particularlywherescopingindicatestheexistenceofmultipleorcomplexissues.Data

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Pros(mainadvantages)andCons(mainconstraintsinuseandresults)EIAoftenfocusesonbiophysicalissues(oftenafaultofpoortermsofreference).Whereenvironment,socialandeconomicaspectsareaddressed,theyarenotalwaysaddressedinanintegratedway.EIAprovidesanopportunitytolearnfromexperienceofsimilarprojectsandavoidsthe(oftenhigh)costofsubsequentlymitigatingunforeseennegativeanddamagingimpacts.EIAimproveslong-termviabilityofmanyprojects.Data

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)ArelativelysmallEIAofaproposedroaddevelopmentinMaputaland,SouthAfricawasconductedin1999fortheSouthAfricanRoadsAgency,DepartmentofTransport.TheroadformedakeyinfrastructuralcomponentofaSpatialDevelopmentInitiativeaimingtoprovideadirectlinkbetweennorthernKwaZulu-NatalandMozambiquetoencouragerapidinvestmentandconverttheareaintoaninternationallycompetitivezoneofeconomicactivityandgrowth.Theprojectaimedtotartheroad,upgraderivercrossingsandconstructanewcrossingoveraswamp.Theundevelopedareadominatedbysubsistenceagriculturehadhighlevelsofpovertyandunemploymentbuthighbiodiversityvalueandhigheco-tourismpotential.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)MkuzeGameReserveTheMkhuzeRiverrunsalongthenorthernandeasternborderswithfigforestsalongitsbanks.VariousanimalspeciesthatmaybefoundintheMkuzeReserveincludeWhiteandBlackRhino,Lion,Leopard,Elephant,Giraffe,Nyala,Wildebeest,andmuchmore.RarespeciesincludeCheetah,WildDog,Hyenas,andSuni.Anextendedscopingstudyprovedadequatefordecision-making,despitethecomplexityofissues.Itprovedunnecessarytoundertakeanintensive,detailedEIAthatwouldhavehadsignificanttimeandresourceimplications.Thestudyinvolvedextensivestakeholderparticipation.Becauseoftheeco-tourismpotentialofpansinthearea,theKwaZulu-NatalNatureConservationService(KZNNCS)proposedanalternativeroutingfortheroadway(thewesternalignment),arguingthatthiswouldprovidegreateraccesstotheKwa-JobeTribalAuthority-anextremelypoorcommunity.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)Theexistingroutewasshorterandthereforecheaper,andmostofitsalignmentwasalreadycleared-solineardevelopmentsandotherdisturbancesalreadyexisted.Butitpassedthroughastateforestwithhazardstogameandgamehazardstotraffic,opportunisticpoachingandnoisefromtheroad.Thealternativewesternalignmentrequiredclearing140haofmatureSandForestandcouldopenaccesstouncontrolledwoodcutting.ButbenefitsincludedexpandingthewidthofamigrationcorridorbetweentheMkuzeGameReserveandtheSodwana.CaseStudy:EIAMkuzeRiverCrossingtoPhelendaba,SouthAfrica

EnvironmentalImpactAssessment(EIA)狀語(yǔ)從句

狀語(yǔ)從句在整個(gè)句子中用來(lái)修飾主句中的動(dòng)詞、形容詞或副詞。英語(yǔ)中的狀語(yǔ)從句形式多樣、變化繁多，是一個(gè)比較復(fù)雜的語(yǔ)言現(xiàn)象。從類(lèi)別上來(lái)說(shuō)，英漢狀語(yǔ)從句都可以分為九大類(lèi)，即時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句、地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句、原因狀語(yǔ)從句、結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句、條件狀語(yǔ)從句、方式狀語(yǔ)從句、目的狀語(yǔ)從句、讓步狀語(yǔ)從句、比較狀語(yǔ)從句等。從語(yǔ)序上來(lái)說(shuō)，英語(yǔ)中狀語(yǔ)從句的位置比較靈活，可放在主句的前面、中間或后面；而漢語(yǔ)中狀語(yǔ)成分的位置較為固定，一般放在主句的前面。英語(yǔ)和漢語(yǔ)分別隸屬不同語(yǔ)系，前者屬于印歐語(yǔ)系，具有形合式的特點(diǎn)，而后者則屬于漢藏語(yǔ)系，具有意合式的特點(diǎn)。換言之，漢語(yǔ)語(yǔ)句在表達(dá)上主要靠詞序或語(yǔ)序，少用連詞，而英語(yǔ)則不同，它必須要有相應(yīng)的連詞加以連接，但在翻譯的過(guò)程中，往往不必譯出連詞。Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句一、時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中的時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句，一般置于主句之前或之后，而在漢語(yǔ)中，通常置于主句之前。翻譯時(shí)，往往采用以下幾種處理方法，即順序譯法、逆序譯法、分譯譯法、轉(zhuǎn)換譯法。(1)Wheneverwethinkhard,ourbrainproducesspecialtransportchemicals.譯文：當(dāng)我們思考時(shí)，我們的大腦產(chǎn)生特殊的傳輸化學(xué)物質(zhì)。（順序譯法）(2)Hardlyhadtheoperatorpressedthebuttonwhenalltheelectricmachinesbegantowork.譯文：操作人員一按電鈕，所有電機(jī)都開(kāi)始運(yùn)作。（逆序譯法）(3)Theearthturnsrounditsaxisasittravelsaboutthesun.譯文：地球一面繞太陽(yáng)轉(zhuǎn)，一面繞地軸自轉(zhuǎn)。（分譯譯法）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句二、地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句

地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句一般是由“where”，“wherever”等連詞引導(dǎo)，位置相對(duì)比較靈活，可放在主句之前也可放在主句之后，有時(shí)，地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句表達(dá)的意思卻是條件句或結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句的意思。翻譯時(shí)，也可靈話處理，一般可采用順序譯法，逆序譯法和轉(zhuǎn)換譯法種翻譯方法：(1)Weuseinsulatorstopreventelectricalchargesfromgoingwheretheyarenotwanted.譯文：我們使用絕球體是為了防止電荷跑到不需要的地方去，（順序譯法）(2)Asignalwillbeshownwhereveranythingwrongoccursinthecontrolsystem.譯文；無(wú)論控制系統(tǒng)什么部位出故障，都會(huì)給出信號(hào)。（逆序譯法）(3)Variationsandpermutationsoftheseproceduresareemployed,particularlywhereequipmentonhandhasbeenmodifiedformaskmanufacture.譯文：這些程序可加以改變或重新排列，特別是現(xiàn)有的設(shè)備為制造掩膜而已經(jīng)被修改了。（地點(diǎn)狀語(yǔ)從句轉(zhuǎn)譯為目的狀語(yǔ)從句）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句三、原因狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中原因狀語(yǔ)從句常常是由“because”，“since”,“for”和“as”等連詞引導(dǎo)，往往位于主句之后，有時(shí)也位于主句之前。在漢語(yǔ)表達(dá)習(xí)慣中，一般先說(shuō)明原因，再說(shuō)結(jié)果，這樣才符合邏輯。所以，在翻譯時(shí)，往往被譯成“由于……”、“因?yàn)椤钡染涫?。在有些情況下，受到西方語(yǔ)言的影響，某些原因狀語(yǔ)從句放在后面，只是起到補(bǔ)充說(shuō)明作用。以下來(lái)具體分析幾種翻譯方法：(1)Thematerialfirstusedwascopperforthereasonthatitiseasilyobtainedinitspurestate.譯文：最先使用的材料是銅，因?yàn)橐子谥迫〖冦~。（順序譯法）(2)Somesulphurdioxideisliberatedwhencoal,heavyoilandgasburn,becausetheyallcontainsulphurcompounds.譯文：因?yàn)槊骸⒅赜秃兔簹獾娜紵己辛蚧?，所以它們?nèi)紵龝r(shí)會(huì)釋放由一些二氧化硫。（逆序譯法）(3)Becausehewasconvincedoftheaccuracyofthisfact,hestucktohisopinion.譯文：他深信這一事實(shí)正確可靠，故而堅(jiān)持己見(jiàn)。（轉(zhuǎn)換譯法）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句四、結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句

英漢兩種語(yǔ)言中結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句都放在主句之后，由連詞that或so…that，such…that等結(jié)構(gòu)引導(dǎo)。多數(shù)情況下，采取順序譯法處理就可以了，但也不要過(guò)于拘泥，通通將其譯為“因而”、“因此”、“如此……以致”、“致使……”等句式。一句話，欲得佳譯，還需譯者靈活處理。例如：

(1)Thesunissomuchbiggerthantheearththatitwouldtakeoveramillionearthstofillaballasbigasthesun.譯文：太陽(yáng)比地球大多了，所以得有一百多萬(wàn)個(gè)地球才能填滿像太陽(yáng)那么大的球體。(順序譯法)(3)Somestarsaresofarawaythattheirlightraysmusttravelforthousandsofyearstoreachus.譯文：有些恒星十分遙遠(yuǎn)，它們的光線要經(jīng)過(guò)幾千年才能到達(dá)地球。（轉(zhuǎn)換譯法）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句五、條件狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中的條件狀語(yǔ)從句主要由“if”,“unless”,“as/solongas”,“onconditionthat”等連接詞引導(dǎo)，其在邏輯關(guān)系上與漢語(yǔ)的假設(shè)復(fù)句或條件復(fù)句大體一致。一般而言，英語(yǔ)中的條件狀語(yǔ)從句位于主句之前或之后，但絕大多數(shù)是位于主句之前，而在漢語(yǔ)中，它往往位于復(fù)句的前部。在某些情況下，為了強(qiáng)調(diào)說(shuō)明或附加補(bǔ)充，也可以將其置于主句之后，翻譯時(shí)，也可依此譯出。(1)Ifsomethinghastheabilitytoadjustitselftotheenvironment,wesayithasintelligence.譯文：如果某物具有適應(yīng)環(huán)境的能力，我們就說(shuō)它具有智慧。（順序譯法）(3)Electricitywouldbeofverylittleserviceifwewereobligedtodependonthemomentaryflow.譯文：在我們需要依靠瞬時(shí)電流時(shí)，電力就沒(méi)有多大用處。(條件狀語(yǔ)從句轉(zhuǎn)譯為時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句)Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句五、條件狀語(yǔ)從句

此外，還有一種特殊的條件句，就是英語(yǔ)中的非真實(shí)條件句，也稱(chēng)作虛擬語(yǔ)氣。這類(lèi)句子位于句首，省略“if”引導(dǎo)詞，卻把“were”,“had”,“should”和“could”等詞提到句首主語(yǔ)之前，形成一種倒裝語(yǔ)序。對(duì)于這類(lèi)句子，在翻譯時(shí)，也可參照由連詞“if”引導(dǎo)的條件句的處理方法，常常采用順序譯法。例如：(4)Weretherenoelectricpressureinasemiconductortheelectronflowwouldnottakeplaceinit.譯文：如果半導(dǎo)體中沒(méi)有電壓，其內(nèi)部就不會(huì)產(chǎn)生電流。Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句六、方式狀語(yǔ)從句

方式狀語(yǔ)從句是英語(yǔ)中較為特別的一種狀語(yǔ)從句，它可以位于主句之前，也可以位于主句之后，一般由“as”,“(just)as…so…”,“asif”,“asthough”等引導(dǎo)?！癮s”,“(just)as…”，“so…”等引導(dǎo)詞引導(dǎo)的方式狀語(yǔ)從句通常位于主句后，但在“(just)as…so…”結(jié)構(gòu)中會(huì)位于句首，這時(shí)“as”從句帶有比喻的含義，意思為“正如……”、“就像”，多用于較為正式的文體當(dāng)中?！癮sif”、“asthough”兩者的意義和用法相同，引出的狀語(yǔ)從句謂語(yǔ)多用虛擬語(yǔ)氣，表示與事實(shí)相反，有時(shí)也用陳述語(yǔ)氣，表示所說(shuō)情況是事實(shí)或?qū)崿F(xiàn)的可能性較大，常常譯為“仿佛…似的”、“好像……似的”。翻譯時(shí)，需要對(duì)這些引導(dǎo)詞加以區(qū)分，正確譯出其意義。(1)Eachoftwowirescarryingcurrentshasamagneticfield,asifitwereamagnet.譯文：通電的兩根導(dǎo)線每根都有一個(gè)磁場(chǎng)，就好像是一塊磁鐵一樣。（順序譯法）(2)Justasalllivingthingsneedair,waterandsunlight,soplantsneedthem.譯文：植物像所有生物一樣也需要空氣、水和陽(yáng)光。（逆序譯法）靠瞬時(shí)電流時(shí)，電力就沒(méi)有多大用處。(條件狀語(yǔ)從句轉(zhuǎn)譯為時(shí)間狀語(yǔ)從句)Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句七、目的狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中的目的狀語(yǔ)從句與漢語(yǔ)中的表達(dá)習(xí)慣基本相同，一般來(lái)說(shuō)它位于主句的后面，常常由“inorderthat”、“sothat”等結(jié)構(gòu)引導(dǎo)，翻譯時(shí)，往往處理為“以便……”、“以免……”、“為的是……”、“為了要……”等句式。此外，在由“sothat”引導(dǎo)的表示要達(dá)到某種目的的一種愿望的從句中，其謂語(yǔ)里往往含有諸如“may”，“might”、“can/could/should”等的情態(tài)動(dòng)詞，否則就屬于表示一種結(jié)果的結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句，試比較以下幾個(gè)例句。(2)Thenegativeworkshouldbemaintainedataslowavalueaspossibleforagivenpressureratio,sothatamaximumamountofusefulworkmaybeobtained.譯文：在給定的壓力比下，負(fù)功應(yīng)當(dāng)保持在盡可能低的值，以便可以獲得最大的有用功。（目的狀語(yǔ)從句）(3)Reflectorsarelocatedsocloselytoeachotherthatechoesoverlap,resultinginthesinglecontinuousechosignaltrain.譯文：發(fā)射器彼此密切相連，因此反射波重疊，形成單一連續(xù)的反射信號(hào)串。（結(jié)果狀語(yǔ)從句）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句八、讓步狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中的讓步狀語(yǔ)從句往往由“while”，“although”，“though”，“eventhough”等連詞引導(dǎo)，也可以由“nomatter+疑問(wèn)詞”或“疑問(wèn)詞+后綴ever”或“形容詞+as+倒裝句子”構(gòu)成。一般情況下，由“though”和“although”引導(dǎo)的讓步狀語(yǔ)從句，后面的從句中不能出現(xiàn)“but”一詞，但是“though”和“yet”可連用；由“as”和“though”引導(dǎo)的讓步從句必須將表語(yǔ)或狀語(yǔ)提前（如形容詞、副詞、分詞等提前）。翻譯時(shí)，常常譯為“雖然/盡管/即使……但……”、“不管/無(wú)論……”等意義的句式，常采用順序譯法、逆序譯法和變序譯法。(1)Althoughheseemsheartyandoutgoinginpublic,Mr.Cooksisawithdrawn,introvertedman.譯文：雖然庫(kù)克斯先生在公共場(chǎng)合熱情而開(kāi)朗，但他卻是一個(gè)孤僻的、性格內(nèi)向的人。（順序譯法）(2)Allelectroniccomputersconsistoffiveunitsalthoughtheyareofdifferentkinds.譯文：盡管種類(lèi)各異，但所有電子計(jì)算機(jī)都由五大部分組成。（逆序譯法）Translation

狀語(yǔ)從句九、比較狀語(yǔ)從句

英語(yǔ)中的比較狀語(yǔ)從句通常是由“as…as…”，“…than”，“themore…themore…”，“notso…as…”引導(dǎo)，有些句子成分通?？墒÷浴＿@類(lèi)從句和大多數(shù)狀語(yǔ)從句不同，它們不修飾動(dòng)詞，而是修飾“as/so/less/more”等副詞，或其他比較級(jí)的詞，如“taller”，“harder”等。這里討論的是它們作為狀語(yǔ)從句的情況。一般而言，英漢語(yǔ)中的比較狀語(yǔ)從句位于主句之后，往往譯為“比……”，“和……一樣”，可采用順序譯法和變序譯法。(2)Thebetterconductorasubstanceis,thelessisitsresistance.譯文：物質(zhì)的導(dǎo)電性能越好，其電阻越小。（順序譯法）(3)TheUKwillhavemoreflexibilitythanbeforeovertrading-offtime,whole-lifecostandperformance.譯文：英國(guó)在交易時(shí)間、全壽命費(fèi)用和性能等方面將具有前所未有的靈活性。（變序譯法）Translation

Exercise

1.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.2.InsuchcasestheEIAmightfocusmoreonmeasuressuchasscale,mitigatingmeasuresandtrafficmanagement.Projectspromotedbypublicsectoragenciesaremorelikelytoconsideralternativesitesorroutesfordevelopmentthanprivatesectorinitiativeswheretheearlyneedtoacquireoptionsorpurchaselandstronglyinfluencesdevelopmentlocation.Translation

學(xué)術(shù)論文的撰寫(xiě)（九）摘要和關(guān)鍵詞的寫(xiě)作技巧一、摘要

摘要(abstract)也稱(chēng)為內(nèi)容提要，美國(guó)國(guó)家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)(ASNI)定義摘要是“一篇精確代表文獻(xiàn)內(nèi)容的簡(jiǎn)短文字”。摘要的英文術(shù)語(yǔ)原來(lái)有兩個(gè)詞匯，一個(gè)是“abstract”，一個(gè)是“summary”，現(xiàn)在越來(lái)越多的用法是“abstract”，尤其是放在索引資料中一律要用“abstract”這個(gè)術(shù)語(yǔ)?！皊ummary”現(xiàn)在更多的是用于對(duì)文章主要內(nèi)容的陳述，放在文章的結(jié)尾。通常在科技論文中都必須附有摘要，其位置應(yīng)放在論文的正文之前。1.摘要的功能與種類(lèi)。摘要分為兩類(lèi)，一類(lèi)是說(shuō)明性摘要(descriptiveabstract)，一類(lèi)是資料性摘要informativeabstract)。如果沒(méi)有特殊要求，科研人員一般使用的是資料性摘要?，F(xiàn)分別對(duì)兩種摘要進(jìn)行敘述。Writing

學(xué)術(shù)論文的撰寫(xiě)（九）摘要和關(guān)鍵詞的寫(xiě)作技巧一、摘要

2.摘要的特點(diǎn)學(xué)術(shù)論文摘要的長(zhǎng)短一般為正文字?jǐn)?shù)的2~3%。國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化組織建議不少于250個(gè)詞，最多不超過(guò)500個(gè)詞。美國(guó)化學(xué)文獻(xiàn)、醫(yī)學(xué)文摘規(guī)定在200個(gè)詞以?xún)?nèi)。①要說(shuō)明實(shí)驗(yàn)或論證中新觀察到的事實(shí)、結(jié)論。若有可能，還要說(shuō)明新的理論、處理方法及過(guò)程、儀器、技術(shù)等要點(diǎn)。②要說(shuō)明新化合物的名稱(chēng)、新數(shù)據(jù)，包括物理常數(shù)等。如不能對(duì)其說(shuō)明，也要提到這些內(nèi)容。提到新的項(xiàng)目和新的觀察是很重要的。③在說(shuō)明實(shí)驗(yàn)結(jié)果時(shí)，要說(shuō)明所采用的方法，如果是新方法，還要簡(jiǎn)述其基本原理、操作范圍和準(zhǔn)確程度。Writing

學(xué)術(shù)論文的撰寫(xiě)（九）摘要和關(guān)鍵詞的寫(xiě)作技巧一、摘要

3.摘要的主要內(nèi)容及文體要求(1)摘要的主要內(nèi)容科技論文摘要的主要內(nèi)容在上文中已經(jīng)提及，資料性論文摘要應(yīng)包括研究目的（對(duì)