中國繪畫鑒賞-楊新

PAGE1ApproachestoChinesePaintingPARTIYangXinChinesepaintingcan,betracedbacktodecorationsonpotteryandonthefloorsofthatchedhutsintheNeolithicperiod.早在原始社會的新石器時代，中國繪畫就出現(xiàn)在陶器和房屋的地面上。IntheEasternZhoudynasty,2500yearsago,theuseofbrushandinkhadalreadydevelopedtosuchapointthatthebasicbrush-madeshapeshavechangedlittlesincethen.2500年前的東周時期，工具主要用毛筆和墨，以線描方式造型。Chineseartists,philosophers,andcriticshaveconstantlydiscussedtheroleandqualitiesofpaintingthroughoutitslongandcomplexhistory.中國藝術家們、哲學家們和評論家們在整個漫長而復雜的歷史背景下不斷地探索繪畫所扮演的角色和所能表現(xiàn)的氣質(zhì)。Tothisday,theworkofmostChinesearthistoriansreflectsthedistinctiveinteractionbetweenthepaintingtradition,ontheonehand,andphilosophy,poetry,calligraphy,andotherculturalforms,ontheother.直到今天，大多數(shù)中國藝術歷史研究家才發(fā)現(xiàn)傳統(tǒng)繪畫之間有種獨特性，它們互相影響著對方，這種影響一方面體現(xiàn)在哲學、詩歌、書法上，還體現(xiàn)在其它的一些文化領域中。WhatmakesChinesepaintingsuchanexquisiteflowerinthegardenofChinesecivilizationisthewaytheartsofthebrushpainting,calligraphy,andpoetrytogetherwiththerelatedartofsealengraving,interact,sometimesdirectly,sometimesindirectly,inproducingsomanyofthemasterpieces.是什么使得中國繪畫有了這么多的杰作？中國文化里的水墨畫、書法和詩歌與印章雕刻之間有著密切的聯(lián)系，這種聯(lián)系有直接的，也有間接地。AcomplexyetimportantdistinctionforChinesescholarsastheyhaveexaminedtheirpaintingtraditionisbetweenthedetailedandtechnicallyproficientrepresentationofasceneorobjectandtherepresentationofitsobjectiveandsubjectivelikeness.中國學者發(fā)現(xiàn)了一個復雜而又重要的區(qū)別，繪畫傳統(tǒng)中通常在刻畫細節(jié)和對場景或物體的表現(xiàn)上顯得技法嫻熟，還有就是體現(xiàn)在對客觀肖像和主觀肖像的表達上。Theformerapproachisassociatedlargelywithcourtpainters,whosefacilitywiththebrushandwhosenaturalisticstyleculminatedinmanyfineworks,particularlyduringtheTang(618—907)andSong(960—1279)dynasties;thelatterapproachisassociatedlargelywiththeliterati-artistswhoseworksstartedtoappearinsignificantnumbersbytheearlySong.宮廷畫家更多地使用前一種方法，他們用的工具刷和自然風格在許多作品中堪稱頂峰之作，尤其是在唐代（618—907）和宋代（960—1279）；后一種方法更多地被文人畫家們所使用，早期的歌曲中就有所體現(xiàn)。Thecontrastisnotatotalone.這個對比并不完整。Still，thedepictionofpartlyimaginedlikenesses,notstrictlyrealisticones,isattheheartofwhatmostChinesescholarsseeasdistinctiveabouttheChinesepaintingtradition.雖然肖像聯(lián)想這一部分的描繪是不受嚴格的現(xiàn)實因素控制的，但是它是多數(shù)中國學者研究中國繪畫獨特性的一個核心部分。"Oneshouldlearnfromnatureandpainttheimageinone'smind,"asthepainterZhangZaowroteintheeighthcentury.如唐代張璪（約活耀于西元8世紀前半葉）提出的“外師造化，中得心源”。古語：Oneshouldlearnfromnatureandpainttheimageinone'smind外師造化，中得心源IntheearlyperiodsinthedevelopmentofChinesepainting,aprominentartisticgoalwastherealisticrepresentationofthesubjectmatter.中國繪畫早期階段，繪畫形式基本定型，努力追求準確真實表現(xiàn)客觀物象成了一個重要的目標。HanFei(280—233B.C），athinkeroftheWarringStatesperiod,arguedthattheeasiestsubjectstopaintwereghostsanddevils;themostdifficult,dogs,horses,andotherrealthings.Why?Becausepeoplearefamiliarwithdogs,andhorses,butnobodyhaseverseenaghostoradevil,sotheywillnotknowwhetheranexactlikenesshasbeenachieved.韓非（約前280—前233年）層提出：“畫鬼魅易，畫犬馬難?！彼f：“夫犬焉，人之所也，旦暮罄于前，不可類之，故難。鬼魅，無形者，不罄于前，故易之也?！盕romthepaintedpotteryofNeolithictimestothesilkpaintingsoftheWarringStates(476—221B.C.)andWesternHan(206B.C—A.D.9)periods,therewasadevelopingmaturityinstyle,withsuccessivepainterstryingtocreaterealisticlikenessesindiverseways.從新石器時代彩陶上的圖案花紋，到戰(zhàn)國（前476—前221年）、西漢（前206—25年）的帛畫，可以看到中國繪畫的表現(xiàn)形式，由探索到定型的發(fā)展過程。MuralsinearlytombsandintheDunhuangcaves,paintedduringtheTangdynasty,attesttotheirgreataccomplishments.早期的大型墓室壁畫和敦煌石窟壁畫就是最好的證明。古語：1、theeasiestsubjectstopaintwereghosts（鬼）anddevils（魔鬼）;themostdifficult,dogs,horses,andotherrealthings畫鬼魅易，畫犬馬難。2、Why?Becausepeoplearefamiliar（熟悉的）withdogs,andhorses,butnobodyhaseverseenaghostoradevil,sotheywillnotknowwhetheranexact（確切的；精確的）likenesshasbeenachieved.夫犬焉，人之所也，旦暮罄于前，不可類之，故難。鬼魅，無形者，不罄于前，故易之也。Inlinewiththisapproach,XieHe,anartcriticandpainteroftheSouthernQi(479--502),arguedthatthereare"sixprinciplesofpainting,"oneofwhichis"fidelitytotheobjectinportrayingforms."南齊（479—502年）謝赫在總結(jié)繪畫“六法”時指出其三是“應物象形”，其四是“隨類賦彩”。ZhangYanyuan,anarthistorianoftheTangdynasty,agreed."Thesubjectmatter,"hesaid,"mustbepaintedtoitsexactlikeness."唐代的張彥遠仍堅持“象物必以形似”。Butothercritics,evenearlyon,believedthatpaintingsneednotshouldnotbejudgedsolelybyastandardofobjectiverealism.中國美學理論家們，很早就意識到，繪畫既然不能純客觀的表現(xiàn)對象。Goodpaintings,theysaid,achievetheunityoftheobjectiveandthesubjective,showingboththeimageasitexistsinrealityandtheimageinthepainter'smind.他們說一幅好的繪畫作品，不能以純客觀的標準去品評它，從而提出了主客觀統(tǒng)一為繪畫的最高境界。古語：1、fidelity（精確）totheobjectinportraying（描繪的）forms應物象形2、mustbepaintedtoitsexactlikeness象物必以形似Hereweseetheemergenceofxieyi,or"sketchingtheidea."這里我們提到的“寫意”，或者說是“大致想法”。This,morethanrealisticdepiction,iswhatmanycriticshaveconsideredtobetrulyimportantinpainting.這種超寫實的手法被許多評論家認為是繪畫中不可或缺的一個重要部分。Deyi,"gettingtheidea"oftheimageintheartist'smind,becomesthechiefpointtograspwhenlookingatapainting.“得意”，藝術家們腦海里“蹦出的想法”，在他們賞畫時領會其中所要表達的主要觀點。Theviewerhastoseebeyondtheimagetotheimpliedmeaning.觀者需看透畫外之意。Onlyby"comprehendingtheidea,"orhuiyi,canoneappreciatethebestpaintingsintheChinesearttradition.只有通過“領會想法”，或者說“會意”，才能對中國繪畫的佳作進行欣賞。Artiststakingthisapproachmayhighlightcertainareasandleavelargeareasblank,exceptforcertaindetailsrelatedtothetheme.藝術家們把與某些細節(jié)相關的主題留了下來，而其余部分大面積的空白，運用這種方法更能突出想要表達的這一部分。Thespacesofvarioussizesandshapesformapatterninthemselves,drawingattentiontothemainsubjectmatterwhileprovidingtheviewerwithroomtoimagineandwanderin.空間中大小不同的形狀組成了圖案，值得引起注意的是，它給予欣賞者想象和徘徊的空間。Realityisimplied,notnecessarilyrenderedwithscrupulousaccuracy.內(nèi)容是含蓄的，不用某個具體形態(tài)的物體去表達這種含蓄。Amoonlitsceneoutdoorsandalamplitsceneindoorsmaybepaintedlikethesamesceneindaylight,withonlyamoonintheskyorabrightlamptosignalnighttime.描繪月光下的景色，和燈光下的室內(nèi)環(huán)境，就和白天時所見沒有區(qū)別，只是天空中多了一輪明月，室內(nèi)多了一支蠟燭或其它燈具而已。InTheNightRevelsofHanXitiai,ascrollpaintingbyGuHongzhongoftheFiveDynastiesperiod(907-960),burningcandlesshowthatthesceneissetatnight(seefig.103).例如，五代（907—960）顧紅忠的《韓熙載夜宴圖》就是描繪燭光下室內(nèi)活動的情景。Anotherexampleofthiswidespreadapproachtorealityrelatestothedepictionofbuildings.又如，在描寫建筑物方面。Chinesepainterstendtopresentbuildingsasseenstraightonorfromslightlyabove,seldomasseenfrombelow.中國畫家從來都是采取平視或稍微俯視的角度去表現(xiàn)，而很少從仰視的角度去描繪。LiCheng,anotherartistoftheFiveDynastiesperiod,oncetriedtopaintpavilions,pagodas,andotherstructuresatophillsexactlyastheyappearedtohimfrombelow;thatis,hedidnotpaintthetilesontheroofs,justthewoodworkandframebelowtheeaves.五代時畫家李成在描繪亭館樓塔時，曾經(jīng)只畫屋檐的下部，而不畫上面的瓦屋，以表現(xiàn)視覺的真實。HisexperimentwascriticizedbyShenKuo,afamousSongdynastyscholar,whosaidthatLididnotunderstandhowto"perceivesmallnessfromlargeness."但他的這種實驗，被學者沈括批評為不懂“以大觀小”的道理。InsucceedingdynastiesnoartisteveragaintookLi`sapproach.后來再也沒人敢坐這樣的試驗了。古語：perceive（察覺；感知；意識到）smallnessfromlargeness以大觀小NeitherShennorotherChinesecriticshavearguedthatsuchworksdistortreality,however.然而不論是沈括或是其它的中國評論家都要求繪畫必須真實。Theoppositeisthecase.不是視覺的真實，也不是客觀物象的真實。Realisticcopyingcannevershowtheinnatemeaningortruenatureofasubject,theywouldsay.而是一種所謂本質(zhì)的真實。Onlywithimaginativerepresentationcanthedepthsofrealitybedepicted.只有靠不斷地想象才能表現(xiàn)出這種真實。BytheendoftheTangdynastyinthetenthcentury,thisapproachtopaintingbegantofinditsgreatformsofexpression.到了十世紀的唐代，這種繪畫形式才找到了合適的表達方式。WorksexecutedbycourtpaintersintothetenthcenturybeforetheestablishmentoftheSongdynastyprominentlyfeaturedhumanfigures,theuseoflinestodefineforms,richandvariedcoloring,andrealisticrepresentationofthesubjectmatter.十世紀宋代建立之前，宮廷畫主要的特點是突出人物，用線和豐富多彩的顏色來表現(xiàn)主體部分。Thisapproachfitwellwiththesocialandculturalfunctionsthatthepaintingsweredesignedtofulfill.這種表現(xiàn)手法能很好的適應當時社會和文化的功能需求，這種需求則通過設計來實現(xiàn)。DuringtheQin(221-206B.C）andHan(206B.C.-A.D.220)dynasties,forexample,thegovernmentusedportraitstopublicizeandeulogizeloyalministersandmartyrsandtodenouncetraitors.秦（公元221—206）、漢（公元206—220）時代人物畫被政府機構(gòu)廣泛用作宣傳工具，以表彰忠誠烈士，批判亂臣賊子。LaterXieHeevenremarked,"Allpaintingsstandforpoeticjustice;lessonsabouttheriseandfallofministersoverthecourseofonethousandyearscanbedrawnfrompaintings."謝赫則明確提出：“圖繪者，莫不明勸解，著升沉，千載寂寥，披圖可鑒?！惫耪Z：Allpaintingsstandforpoetic（充滿詩意的；富有想象力的）justice（審判）;lessonsabouttheriseandfallofministers（部長）overthecourseofonethousandyearscanbedrawnfrompaintings.圖繪者，莫不明勸解，著升沉，千載寂寥，披圖可鑒。ScholarsandofficialsoftheTangdynastywentastepfurtherandattemptedtobringpaintingintolinewithConfucianideology.唐代士大夫們試圖把繪畫創(chuàng)作納入儒家思想體系。InLidaiminghuaji(Recordoffamouspaintingsofsuccessivedynasties),ZhangYanyuanarguedthatthe"artofpaintingexiststoenlightenethics,improvehumanrelationships,divinethechangesofnature,andexplorehiddentruths.ItfunctionsliketheSix[Confucian]Classicsandworksregardlessofthechangingseasons."《歷代名畫記》（記載歷代名畫的）中張彥遠說過：“夫畫者，成教化，助人倫，窮神變，側(cè)幽微，與六籍同功，四時并運?！绷?，是指儒家的六種經(jīng)典著作：《詩》、《書》、《禮》、《樂》、《易》、《春秋》。ThecataloguerofthecourtcollectionofpaintingsentitledXuanhehuapu,compiledattheendoftheNorthernSong(960--1127),attemptedtodefinethesocialfunctionoffigurepainting,evenarguingthatlandscapepainting,bud-and-flowerpainting,andanimalpaintingshouldfulfillasimilarethicalfunction.在北宋官修的《宣和畫譜》一書中，功能的倫理，道德政治的宣傳的要求更加得到強化，不但對人物要求如此，而且對山水、花鳥畫和動物畫亦是如此。古語：artofpaintingexiststoenlighten（啟發(fā)；教育；教導）ethics（倫理；道德學；規(guī)矩）,improvehumanrelationships,divine（神的；神性的；天賜的）thechangesofnature,andexplorehiddentruths.ItfunctionsliketheSix[Confucian]Classicsandworksregardlessofthechangingseasons.夫畫者，成教化，助人倫，窮神變，側(cè)幽微，與六籍同功，四時并運。IntheXuanhehuapu,paintingsweredividedintotencategoriesaccordingtosubject:religiousthemes,figures,palacebuildings,foreignpeople,dragonsandfish,landscapes,animals,birdsandflowers,bamboo,andvegetablesandfruit.《宣和畫譜》將繪畫分類為十門，依次為道釋、人物、宮室、番族、龍魚、蓄獸、花鳥、墨竹、蔬果。ThesecategoriescarefullyreflectedtheofficialConfucianvaluesystemofthetime.我們可以清楚的看到，這個次序的先后排列，是深受儒家理論影響的。Landscapepaintings,forexample,wereprizedfortheirportrayaloftheFiveSacredMountainsandtheFourGreatRivers—placesofimperialsignificance.山水畫的存在價值是因為能描繪“五獄”、“四瀆”。Themeritofbirdsandflowersinitiallylayintheir"metaphoricalandallegoricalmeaning,"whilethatofvegetablesandfruitlayintheiruse"assacrificestodeities."談到花鳥畫則說：“詩人取之，為此興諷喻”，談到瓜果則說：“可修之于扁豆，薦之于神明”。Inshort,paintingswerejudgedlargelyintermsofhourwelltheirsubjectmatterservedthegods,theBuddha,sages,andemperors.總之，通篇論述離不開為神佛、圣賢和皇帝所用和服務。古語：1、metaphorical（用隱喻的；比喻的）andallegorical（寓意的）meaning詩人取之，為此興諷喻。2、assacrifices（犧牲）todeities（神）可修之于扁豆，薦之于神明。ThecompileroftheXuanbehuapucertainlyknewthatbirdsandbamboowerenotdirectlyconnectedtohumanaffairs,buttheyhadtobemademetaphoricallyrelevantiftheyweretosymbolizemoralandethicalvalues.《宣和畫譜》的作者清楚地知道，這些鳥和竹“不預乎人事”，而要賦予它以倫理道德意義。Thus,pinetrees,bamboo,plumblossoms,chrysanthemums,gulls,andducksbecamesymbolsofhermitsormenofnoblecharacter;peoniesandpeacocksbecamesymbolsofwealthandrank;willowtrees,symbolsofamoroussentiments;andtallpinetreesandancientcypresses,symbolsofconstancyanduprightness.因此，松樹、竹子、梅花、菊花、海鷗和鴨子，比喻高人逸士；牡丹和孔雀則比擬成表現(xiàn)富貴；喬松和古柏象征堅貞磊落。Inthisway,bird-and-flowerpaintingscouldserveaninstructionalpurpose.用這種手法，花鳥畫可以起到教化作用。BytheendoftheTangandduringtheFiveDynasties,beforetheXuanhehuapuwaswritten,landscapepaintingandbird-and-flowerpaintingonsilkachievedmaturity,intheprocesschangingthetraditional,simplisticuseofsketchedlinestodefineforms.至唐末五代，《宣和畫譜》撰寫之前，山水畫和花鳥畫成為在絹素上單幅創(chuàng)作的獨立畫科，而趨于成熟，它的成熟打破了古老的單純的線描勾勒的表現(xiàn)形式。Aslandscapescametoconveytranquillityorpoeticmelancholyandrefinement,thetendencytouselesscolororevenjustmaterandinkbecameprevalent.山水追求寧靜或蕭條淡泊的詩意，使繪畫中色彩逐漸減弱以致走向純用水墨。Paintersalsoincreasinglyusedscrollsasamedium.畫家們也越來越多地使用起卷軸這一形式。InartcirclesinChinaitisbelievedthatWuDaozi(activeca.710-760)markedthepeakofcourtpainting.Unfortunately,noneofhisworkshavesurvived,butsomecopiesaresaidtobebasedonhisoriginaldrawings(seefig.68).中國藝術界認為吳道子（約公元710—760）宮廷繪畫的最高峰。不幸的是，他的大部分作品沒有能夠留下來，但這一說法是依據(jù)他的圖紙來的（見圖68）。Acoupleofcenturieslater,intheNorthernSongperiod,cametheriseoftheliteratus-artist,whoseinfluenceonthedevelopmentofChinesepaintingwasformidable.幾世紀后，北宋時期，文人畫家的興起，對中國繪畫發(fā)展產(chǎn)生了巨大的影響。Theliterati-artistswerewelltrainedinpoetryandcalligraphy.文人畫家擅長詩歌和書法。Partlytodistinguishthemselvesfromprofessionalpainters,theyoftenlookedatpaintingintermsofthosearts,adoptingmanyoftheaestheticconceptionssetforthinErshisishipira(Thetwenty-fouraspectsofpoetry)bySikongTuoftheTangdynasty,amilestoneinthehistoryofpoetrycriticism.他們一部分使自己有別于專業(yè)繪畫家，他們通常用這種藝術理念去看畫，用不同的審美理念去品評唐代司空圖的《二十四詩品》，這是一部影響很深遠的品評詩歌的著作。Toelucidatesuchnotionsasvigor,thinness,primitivesimplicity,elegance,naturalness,andimplicitness,SikongTudescribednaturalsettingsappropriatetoeach.它主要闡述的是“雄渾”、“沖淡”、“高古”、“典雅”、“自然”和“含蓄”，司空圖通過一幅幅對自然風景的描繪去說明這些概念。Elegance,forinstance,couldbeexpressedbydepictingsceneswith"gentlemenlisteningtothefallingraininathatchedcottagewhiledrinkingfromajadepot;seatedgentlemenflankedbytallbamboogroves;orfloatingwhitecloudsandafewbirdschasingeachotherinaskyclearingafterrain."比如，用“玉壺買春，賞雨茅屋。座中佳士，左右修竹。白云初晴，幽鳥相逐。眠琴綠蔭，上有飛瀑”來說明典雅。古語：gentlemenlisteningtothefallingraininathatchedcottagewhiledrinkingfromajadepot;seatedgentlemenflankedbytallbamboogroves;orfloatingwhitecloudsandafewbirdschasingeachotherinaskyclearingafterrain.玉壺買春，賞雨茅屋。座中佳士，左右修竹。白云初晴，幽鳥相逐。眠琴綠蔭，上有飛瀑。Anothertheoryofpoetrythatprovedhighlyinfluentialamongliterati-paintersandartcriticswassetforthbyMeiYaochen,aSongpoetwhosoughttoachieve"depthandprimitivesimplicity"inhisworks.文人畫家和藝術評論家中，梅堯臣的另一種詩歌理論被證實頗有影響力，他是宋代詩人，作品追求“深遠古淡”。Onceheremarkedthatpoems"mustbeabletoportrayhard-to-catchscenesasiftheyleapupbeforetheeyes,andimplymeaningbetweenthelines.Amasterpieceissuperioreventothis."他評論詩時曾提出：“必能狀難寫之景如在目前，含不盡之意見于言外，然后為之?！盉y"meaningbetweenthelines"hereferredtosomethingtheauthorhadinmindandthereadercouldperceiveonlybyintuition,thatis,ameaningthatcouldbeapprehendedbutnotexpressed.他解釋“言外之意”說：“作者得于心，覽者會以意，殆難指陳以言也?！盩heliterati-artistssawtheapplicabilityofthisideatopainting.文人畫家看到了這種想法在繪畫中的適用性。古語：1、mustbeabletoportrayhard-to-catchscenesasiftheyleapupbeforetheeyes,andimplymeaningbetweenthelines.Amasterpieceissuperioreventothis.必能狀難寫之景如在目前，含不盡之意見于言外，然后為之。2、somethingtheauthorhadinmindandthereadercouldperceiveonlybyintuition,thatis,ameaningthatcouldbeapprehendedbutnotexpressed.作者得于心，覽者會以意，殆難指陳以言也。Anotheraspectoftheshiftfromcourtpaintingtoliteratipaintingwasthegrowingemphasisonpaintingasanenjoyableactivity,intendedtopleaseoneselfandone'sfriends.另一個方面的轉(zhuǎn)變就是宮廷畫到文人畫更注重以愉悅為主，有意的請自己和自己的朋友加入。SuShi,apoet,calligrapher,andpainteroftheSongdynasty,wasoneadvocateofenjoyment.蘇軾是宋代的書法家和畫家，他提倡快樂。Heoncewroteapoemtoafriendthatread:"laskedwhyyoupaintedaportraitofme;yousaidyouareaportraitisttoamuseyourself."他曾經(jīng)在寫給朋友的一首詩中說道：“問君何若寫我真，君言好之聊自適”,NiZan,oneoftheFourGreatMastersofYuan-dynastypainting,suggestedthatthepursuitofenjoymentgainedinimportanceasthesearchforthe"exactlikeness"grewmoredesultory.倪瓚，元代繪畫四大家之一認為“仆之所謂畫者，不過逸筆草草，不求形似，聊以自娛耳?！盩hisviewwascarriedforwardbyDongQichang,thegreatpainterandarthistorianofthelateMingdynasty,whoexplicitly-advocated"paintingforfun"and"thepaintingoffun."這個觀點被晚明時期的著名畫家和藝術史學家董其昌推向極致，他明確地出“以畫為樂”、“寄樂于畫”的口號。ThroughouttheYuan（1271-1368),Ming(1368—1644）,andQing(1644——1911）dynasties,particularlytowardthecloseofeach,whengovernmentpowerwanedandcorruptiongrewrife,theideaofusingpaintingsto"enlightenethicsandimprovehumanrelationships"wasseldommentionedbyliterati-artists.縱觀元明清三代，特別是在兩個朝代的過渡時期，政府的力量衰退，貪污腐化盛行的時候，繪畫的“成教化，助人倫”的作用則很少被士大夫們所涉及了。古語：1、laskedwhyyoupaintedaportraitofme;yousaidyouareaportraitisttoamuseyourself.問君何若寫我真，君言好之聊自適。2、"paintingforfun"and"thepaintingoffun."以畫為樂、寄樂于畫。3、enlightenethicsandimprovehumanrelationships.成教化，助人倫。ThepracticeofannotatingapaintingwithapoemevidentlyoriginatedamongtheliteratioftheSongperiod.直接把詩歌書寫在繪畫作品上，亦出現(xiàn)于宋代文人學者們。TheTangpoetDuFucomposedmanypoemsaboutpaintings,someofwhichwerecommentsonspecificworks.Whetheranyofhispoemswerewrittendirectlyonwallpaintingsorscrollsisunknown.唐朝詩人杜甫有許多觀賞繪畫時的詩歌創(chuàng)作，但杜甫是否真的直接把詩題寫在壁畫或絹素畫上還是有待研究的問題。AnumberofSongpoetscomposedpoemsaboutpaintings,however,andsomeofthesearefoundwrittenonthemountingsofhandscrolls.宋代詩人的題畫詩作大大超過了唐人，有的可能是題在手卷后的尾紙上。TheearliestknownpiecesextanttodayareattributedtoEmperorHuizong(r.1101--1125)，acelebratedpainterinhisownright(see;forinstance,fig.113);amongtheseistheearliestexistingexampleofapaintinginscribedwithapoemcomposedbytheartisthimself.已知最早把詩題在畫中的是皇帝宋徽宗（公元1101—1125），也是一名非常有名的畫家。（圖113）這些是現(xiàn)存最早的將自己的詩題于畫面中的實例。Laterpaintersfollowedsuit;thepracticebecamepopularduringtheYuandynastyandcommonduringtheMingandQingdynasties,whenpaintingswerelikelytobearpoetryorotherinscriptions.之后的畫家紛紛追隨。元代的畫家將自己的詩作提于畫上以成為風氣，至明清時代，幾乎無書不題了。ThatChinesecharactersdevelopedfrompictographsledtoabeliefthatpaintingandcalligraphyhadacommonorigin.中國的漢字起源于象形導致“書畫同源”成為了一種普遍的認識。Recentarchaeologicalfindingshaveestablishedthatinfactpaintingappearedbeforetheinventionofscript.而從現(xiàn)今的考古學發(fā)現(xiàn)來看，繪畫的出現(xiàn)早于文字。Itremainstrue,however,thatthereisacloseconnectionbetweencalligraphyandpainting:bothinvolvebrushwork,andinscribingapaintingrequiresknowinghowtowritebeautifulscript.雖然如此，但是書法和繪畫之間還是存在十分密切的聯(lián)系:它們都使用毛筆來創(chuàng)作，而且繪畫時也需要了解怎樣寫一手漂亮的字。Overtime,literati,whowerewellversedin（對……精通，擅長于……）calligraphy,employedintheirpaintingsbrushworktechniquesaffectedbytheircalligraphicstyle,andcametoseetheformandcontentoftheinscription（n.題詞；銘文；刻?。゛sanintegralpart（主要的部分）ofthepainting.自從文人畫興起之后，由于文人們本身擅長書法，他們所用的繪畫技術受書法風格的影響，從這點可以看出銘文的形式和內(nèi)容也成了繪畫不可或缺的一部分。Drawnto（吸引）theartofcalligraphy,theybegantopaycloseattentioninpaintingtotheaestheticappeal（審美情趣的）oflinesandtothedistinctivewaysofdoingbrushwork,insteadofjustemployinglinestocomposeforms.吸取了書法藝術，他們開始重視在繪畫中運用既符合審美需求又賦有情趣的線條和獨到的用筆方式，而不僅僅是用線組成某種形狀。XieHe,inhisSixPrinciplesofpainting,introducedtermstoevaluatebrushwork.謝赫的“六法”中提出“骨法用筆”。IntheYuandynasty，ZhaoMengfu(1254--1322)inscribedapoemonapaintingofrocksandbamboothatconcludedwiththestatementthatcalligraphyandpaintingareidentical(seefig.173).在元代的時期，趙孟頫在石塊上和竹簡上題寫了一首詩得出結(jié)論證明，書法和繪畫有異曲同工之意。Laterartistsdidnottakethisviewbutinsteadcultivated（培養(yǎng)，發(fā)展出）adistinctivepersonalcalligraphicstylethatwasnaturallyreflectedintheirpaintings.后來藝術家并沒有采用這一辦法，而是把書法作為一種修煉，自然地流露于畫中。ShenZhou(1427-1509),forexample,whomodeled（模仿）hiscalligraphyonHuangTingjian's,executedpaintingswiththeboldandvigorousbrushstrokescharacteristic（特性；特色）ofHuang'sscript（手跡；書寫用的字母）(seefig.203).例如，沈周（1427—1509）他學習黃庭堅的書法，故他的繪畫用筆雄渾勁鍵。OtherswhosepaintingstyleshowssimilaritieswiththeircalligraphicstyleareWenZhengming(1470--1559),ZhaoZhiqian(18291844),andWuChangshuo(18441927)(seefigs.204,282,284).其他的藝術家的繪畫風格也表現(xiàn)出與他們書法風格相似之處，如文徵明，趙之謙，吳昌碩等。Theinscriptiononapaintingaccentuates（強調(diào)）andcomplements（補充）theimage.畫面上的題詩，是畫面內(nèi)容的延伸和補充，但同時要求書寫漂亮和具有個性。IntheSongandYuanperiods,paintingswereusuallyinscribed（v.題寫；雕刻）aftercompletiontofillupanyremainingspace,butintheMingandQingperiods,placement（布置）oftheinscriptionwasconsideredwhenanartistplannedtheinitialcomposition．元、宋時期的題詩，往往是先畫后寫，在畫面適當?shù)目瞻滋幖宇}。明、清時期幾乎不畫不題，則在畫面構(gòu)思布局之時，就已經(jīng)考慮到題詩的位置。Insomeworkstheinscribedpoemisessentialtocreatingtheperfectvisualeffect.一些作品中，題詩部分和繪畫一起構(gòu)成視覺效果。InBambooandRockbyZhengXie（16931766),forexample,thegraylinesandgradations（層次）ofthecalligraphylooklikethecontourlines（輪廓線）oftherock(seefig.262）.例如鄭燮在《竹石圖》中，用六分半的畫體題寫在山體上，造成一個灰面層次，像山石的紋理。InFishSwimmingbyLiFangying(16951755),thepoemhangsvertically（adv.垂直地）likeariverbank.在李方膺的《游魚圖》中，詩句從上而下排列于畫面一側(cè)，從視覺效果上給人以河岸或田埂的聯(lián)想。Seals,whichtypicallyimprint（vt.加特征；刻上記號）charactersengraved（v.雕刻（engrave的過去式））inanancientcalligraphicstyle,likewise（adv.同樣地；也）enhanceapainting.印章上刻印的典型特征是雕刻古老的書法樣式，同時也增加了畫面里的繪畫效果。Thepracticeofaffixing（使……依附于）sealspossiblyoriginatedwithcollectorswhostampedtheirsealsoncollectionstodesignate（指定）ownership.印章大約起源于收藏家鈐蓋印記，他們把印章蓋在收藏品上是為了指定作品版權(quán)。AccordingtotheXuandehuapu,paintingsexecutedbeforetheTangdynastywerenotstamped.通過《宣德畫譜》可以看出，唐代以前的畫是沒有印記的。TheTangemperorTaizonginaugurated（使正式就任）thepracticebyhavinghissealsappliedtopaintingsintheimperialhousehold（皇室家族）.始作俑者是唐太宗李世民，在內(nèi)府收藏繪畫上印印章。）DuringtheNorthernSong,paintersbegantostamptheirownworks,oftentowardagainst（防止）forgery（偽造品）.而在北宋期間，畫家們才開始在自己的作品上加蓋印章，通常是為了防止他人偽造。）Usingseals,howeverpractical,addedaestheticappealtothepaintings,asliterati-paintersrealized.除了印章的實際作用外，文人畫家們終于發(fā)現(xiàn)在畫面上加蓋印章，另外增添了一種情趣和別樣的美。Thescarlet（深紅色的）stampcouldenliven（使活躍，使生氣）apictureotherwisedullincolor,andthechoiceofsealindicatedcertaininterestsandvaluesofthepainter,oftenwithsubtlecultural,personal,orpoliticalimplications.在畫面上印上鮮紅的印泥，為原本多為水墨或淡著色的繪畫作品平添了幾分顏色效果。此外，印章的文字內(nèi)容，可以表達畫家的思想情