淺析英語委婉語的特點(diǎn)和功能BRIEF STUDY ON THE CHARACTERISTICS AND FUNCTIONS OF ENGLISH EUPHEMISM

1、淺析英語委婉語的特點(diǎn)和功能brief study on the characteristics and functions of english euphemism abstracteuphemism is a common phenomenon when people use language, which is not only a social language phenomenon, but it is also a cultural phenomenon. we all need to communicate in our daily life or in diplomacy. ho

2、wever, because of the difference of habit or custom and the taboo of different culture, we must learn to use euphemism to avoid embarrassment or unhappiness. in western cultures, many of the fields that people tend to euphemize widely are not different from anywhere in the world. this paper introduc

3、es the definition of english euphemism and the relationship between euphemism and taboos. it mainly focuses on the characteristics and functions of english euphemism. english euphemism has many characteristics. it refers to its nationality, universality and obscurity. from some examples and contrast

4、s with chinese we could know more details about the characteristics of english euphemism. then, it mainly discusses the social communicative functions of english euphemism, for example, the evasive functions, polite functions and comestic functions of english euphemism. it mainly talks about the eva

5、sive functions of english euphemism. from some aspects such as death, physical illness, old age and sex we could find more details about the functions of english euphemism.it is easy for us to find out that euphemism exists in every aspect in our daily life. whatever countries and times, people try

6、to avoid mentioning certain notions or things directly, even when there is such a term in the language. when such a notion or thing has to be referred to, the practice will be to substitute a different term or phrase that sounds better. from this thesis, we could find that use euphemism correctly ca

7、n benefits a lot. it makes people feel better when they start a conversation. euphemism also let us happy in communication. if all of us know how to use euphemism exactly, people will find that communicate with others is a easy thing.key words：euphemism, taboo, characteristics, functions摘 要委婉語是人類使用語

8、言過程中的一種普遍現(xiàn)象。它們不僅是一種社會(huì)語言現(xiàn)象，更是一種文化現(xiàn)象。不管是在日常生活還是在涉外交際中，我們都要進(jìn)行語言交流。由于某些生活習(xí)慣或習(xí)俗差異，以及不同文化背景的社會(huì)具有不同的忌諱，這時(shí)我們就必須學(xué)會(huì)使用委婉語以避免尷尬或不愉快。在西方社會(huì)文化生活中，在很多領(lǐng)域，人們廣泛地使用著委婉語，這和世界上多數(shù)地區(qū)是一樣的。本文介紹了英語委婉語的定義，以及它與禁忌語的關(guān)系。主要談到英語委婉語的特點(diǎn)及功能。英語委婉語有許多特點(diǎn)，本文主要涉及它的民族性、普遍性和模糊性。通過一些例子和與中文的一些對(duì)比的學(xué)習(xí)，從而對(duì)對(duì)英語委婉語特點(diǎn)的細(xì)節(jié)有了更多的了解。然后，文章主要討論了委婉語的社會(huì)交際功能，比如它

9、的掩飾功能、禮貌功能以及修飾功能。而在這個(gè)部分又著重討論了它的掩飾功能，從對(duì)死亡、疾病、年老、以及性方面對(duì)它的細(xì)節(jié)進(jìn)行了討論。我們很容易在生活中各個(gè)部分中發(fā)現(xiàn)委婉語的存在。不管是什么國(guó)家或場(chǎng)合，在使用語言時(shí)人們總是避免直接提到某一個(gè)東西。當(dāng)一定要提到它時(shí)，人們總是選擇聽起來好的詞語來代替它。通過此文，我們可以了解正確使用委婉語能獲益良多。它能讓人們?cè)趯?duì)話時(shí)感覺更好。同樣，委婉語能讓人們快樂地交往。如果我們每個(gè)人都能準(zhǔn)確的使用委婉語，將會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)交際其實(shí)是一件容易的事情。關(guān)鍵詞：委婉語, 禁忌語, 特點(diǎn), 功能contentsintroduction1chapter 1 introduction o

10、f english euphemism31.1 the definition of english euphemism31.2 relationship with taboos4chapter 2 characteristics of english euphemism52.1 nationality52.2 universality62.3 obscurity6chapter 3 social communicative functions of english euphemism83.1 evasive functions of english euphemism83.1.1 euphem

11、isms of death83.1.2 euphemisms of physical illness103.1.3 euphemisms of “old age”113.1.4 euphemisms of sex123.2 polite function of english euphemism143.3 comestic functions of euphemism15conclusion17notes19bibliography20acknowledgements21introductionthe word “euphemism” originated from the greek lan

12、guage “euphemismos”. “eu-“means “good”, and “-phemism” means “speech”. therefore, “euphemism” means “to speak fairly”, or “a good speech”.it is the beautified terms for unpleasant ones and used to protect the speakers and the listeners in human communication from being offended unnecessarily.simply

13、speaking, euphemism is used to create harmony and make conversations pleasant and smooth. since the 17th century, some english scholars have paid attention to them. they are employed to conceal some unpleasant topics, such as the topics concerning death, illness, or to understate some facts that wou

14、ld be likely to cause bad psychological reactions. that is why plutarch comments “those macedonians are a rude and clownish people, they call a spade a spade”.1 as english learners, we should learn to use them properly and analyze the real meanings and the motivations of the users.this thesis conduc

15、ts a detailed research on english euphemism. it contains four part. the first part undertakes the definition of euphemism, relationship between euphemism and taboo. the next part introduces the characteristics of euphemism. the third part focuses on the social functions of euphemism. the last part p

16、rents the conclusion that mentioned the significant of euphemism. it emphasis the characteristics and functions of english euphemism. it introduces three characteristics of english euphemism in this thesis, such as nationality, universality and obscurity. from these, we could know some details about

17、 the characteristics of english euphemism. the function of english euphemism is very important to the communication. so this thesis place it as the priority. from this thesis, we could find that euphemism is very important to us, not only in daily life, but also in religion and works. if we learn eu

18、phemism well and put it into practice exactly, the communication will become more easily and happily.chapter 1introduction of english euphemismto mention euphemism, first we should know what euphemism is. there are something about the definition of english euphemism and its relationship with the tab

19、oos.1.1 the definition of english euphemismeuphemism, as a special mode of expression, has been defined differently in different books. there are some definitions cited as follows:1) substitution of mild or vague or roundabout expression for harsh or blunt or direct one. 22) substitution, restraint,

20、 softened expression, mock modesty, metaphorical speech, verbal extenuation, word in verbal good taste, over delicacy of speech, affected refinement of language.33) a polite, tactful, or less explicit term used to avoid the direct naming of an unpleasant painful or frightening reality.44) a polite w

21、ord or expression that people use when they are talking about something which they or other people find unpleasant or embarrassing, such as death or sex.55) used as an alternative to a dispreferred expression, in order to avoid possible loss of face: either ones own face or, through giving offense,

22、that of the audience, or of some third party.6though scholars defined “euphemism” differently from different perspectives, these definitions share the same point: euphemism is an indirect, roundabout, and polite mode of expression used to talk about something unpleasant. in communication, it can mak

23、e the unpleasant things sound better, and make people feel good; it can make both speakers and hearers safe without losing face. 1.2 relationship with taboosit is important to recognize that taboos and resulting euphemisms have always operated together in language. the word “taboo” has been borrowed

24、 from tongan, where it means “holy” or “untouchable”. taboos exist in all know cultures, generally related with certain acts, objects, or relationships which society wishes to avoidand thus with the language used to talk about them. s crystal points out, “the usual way of coping with taboo words and

25、 notions is to develop euphemisms and circumlocution” 7, and for this reason it seems safe to say that where there are taboo words, there are euphemism.however, euphemisms dont necessarily have to deal with taboos. despite the fact that a large number of euphemisms derive from taboos, euphemistic ex

26、pression also function where the addresser avoids using a harsh or distasteful expression to say things in a more tactful manner. in modern usage euphemisms are often concerned with politeness and face-saving strategies. for example, employees can be hired and fired, but perhaps it would be more tac

27、tful and polite to talk about de-hiring instead of firing them, although “firing” is by no means a taboo expression in this case.chapter 2characteristics of english euphemismeuphemism, as a language phenomenon, has some special characteristics. the following characteristics can be applied to euphemi

28、sm phenomenon in the english language as well as some other languages.2.1 nationalityalthough euphemism is the general language phenomenon of every nation, the use of the euphemism is different because of different history, custom, moral standards and social value. social value influences language l

29、argely; it influences euphemism even more. chinese and english belong to different cultural systems, so the great difference in their social value is seen in the formation, development and change of euphemism. here we will have a contrastive study of euphemisms for old age. chinese and english have

30、different feelings about old age. a chinese is proud of being old, whereas a westerner will feel irritated even insulting at mentioning his oldness, because chinese culture placed a high value on oldness. to be old means to be more experienced and knowledgeable. chinese has a tradition of showing re

31、spect for the elders. yet westerners dislike oldness for their work ethic. the old, who no longer work, are ignored by society because the aged are perceived to be making no direct or worthwhile contribution to social welfare, but rather viewed by the more productive members of the society as burden

32、s on economy. for example, in western countries, people avoid using “old” in calling the senior people. however, chinese always like to use “老to call anyone who is experienced and influential. for example, “您老高壽？” “王老” and so on. 2.2 universalityfirst and foremost, euphemism is a universal phenomeno

33、n across all languages. although first known as “the british linguistic vice”, it has come to be so consistently and so ubiquitously maintained in human society that every society in all corners of the world, and not just like the hypocritical british, know how to substitute blunt or harsh or indece

34、nt expression with mild or vague or periphrastic ones. euphemisms exist in almost every language. in terms of english euphemisms, the universal features are mainly embodied in two aspects. firstly, people from different societies and social classes are all euphemistic about which words are to be tre

35、ated as objectionable. for example, every society seems to euphemize at least some aspects of death. secondly, the use of euphemisms cuts across every society that uses english as the language of communication, the topics covering all aspects of our life, ranging from the divine religious affairs an

36、d supernatural powers to the unspeakable domains of amateur and professional sex, and from the seven deadly sins and sundry peccadilloes to governmental bureaucratese and urbababble.2.3 obscuritythe first linguists thought that language should be precise, at least “the preciser, the better.” and the

37、y regarded obscurity as a defect of human language. however, it was discovered later that human language in science as well as everyday use is not completely precise, but exhibits a more or less high degree of fuzziness, and that there are always issues that cannot be settled with precise methods. o

38、bscurity is not a defect but exactly one of the basic and indispensable properties of human language. in fact, obscurity plays such an unusual role that it is even given more preference to preciseness on some occasion. euphemism is such an occasion that overlooks precision and leads to semantic obsc

39、urity.take “pregnant” for example. the topic concerning being pregnant is touchy because it tends to arouse the association with sexual behavious. “to beat round bushes” is very necessary, such as “with child”, “anticipating”, “expecting”, for “pregnant”, etc. when people talk something awkward, it

40、is better for they to use a indirect expression to substitute it. so sometimes obscure expressions are very important in communication. it could make both the speaker and the listener start a successful conversation. chapter 3social communicative functions of english euphemismeuphemism is not only a

41、 phenomenon of social language, but also a phenomenon of culture. with the development of the society and civilization of human, euphemism still exist in the process of language communication and demonstrate thoroughly its functions of communication. euphemism applies in all kinds of regions widely,

42、 so that its function of communication could contribute us to learn english well. 3.1 evasive functions of english euphemismeuphemisms abound in peoples daily communications. in our daily life, there are some things that are better left unnamed. most people in most societies throughout history have

43、found it difficult in many circumstances to refer directly to, for example, the excretion of waster matter from the body. frank words for the sexual and excretory organs tend to be avoided unless particular social conditions permit them. death, disease, sexual activity, old age, madnessin short, any

44、thing that we are ashamed of : this is where the taboos of language operate. therefore, in order to achieve successful communication, accommodations are continually, and often subconsciously, made that is euphemisms or “telling like it isnt.3.1.1 euphemisms of deathdeath is one of the most terrible

45、events to most human beings. as a consequence, direct uttering this word is avoided as possibly as one could in almost every culture. however, people must face it no matter whether people like it or not. to avoid mentioning directly the word “death”, which probably will arouse unhappy feeling and fr

46、ighten people, lots of euphemisms are created to substitute for it. some death euphemisms express commendatory meaning, such as “to be in heaven”, “to be with god”; some neutral, such as “to go”, “to decease”; still some derogatory, such as “to crock”, “to bick the bucket”. people are reluctant to a

47、ccept the fact that the dead persons have left this world forever, and they employ various strategies to achieve their goal. death is just like “a rest” or some other forms of “non-consciousness”, so the dead just “close their eyes” and “fall asleep”; death is “a journey or a leaving from life” to s

48、ome specified places, so the dead “receive the final summons” and have to “answer the call”; death is a loss for those who know the dead, so the dead are “no longer with us” and are “sadly missed”; death is also an end, so the dead “breathe their last” and are no more in existence.most people in wes

49、tern society believe in christianity. christian culture penetrates into the english language. many euphemisms on death are from holy bible or christian legends and allusions and some of them manifest the philosophy of christianity and its religious interpretation of death. for example, just because

50、god created men with clay and men are created equal, “to die” is called”to return to dust/earth” or “to be called to god” or “to answer the final summons”, or “to hand in ones accouts/to be sent to ones account”. the dead people should report to the god his whole life and wait for “the last judgemen

51、t”. therefore human beings should do good deeds to “pay charon” who will boat him “across the river styx” and then they can “pay saint pter a visit” and “go to heaven/pradise”, “be promoted to glory”, “be with god” and “be at peace”.china is multi-deity-worship country with taoism and buddhism playi

52、ng prominent roles. these religious generate some chinese death euphemisims. for example, in taosits eyes, “death” is just a change from life to another kind of existence, which simply means that the flesh and blood turns into immoral spirit, so death is called “xianshi”(literally, it means to pass

53、away to be among the immortals), or “xianqu”(literally, it means to go as immortals). chinese death euphemisms with religious hue are far less than english ones, which largely results from the pluralism of chinese religions. so each proposes their own terms and different religious terms should be us

54、ed to describe different religions and never cross use them. what is more, chinese death euphemisms with religious hue never achieve the popularity level of their english counterpart. they are more often used within the religious circles as they take on register labels.3.1.2 euphemisms of physical i

55、llnesspeople always try to avoid naming disease directly. in the 19th century, tuberculosis killed many people but its causes were mysterious, giving it an extra dimension of fear. it was euphemized as “consumption” in allusion to the way in which it consumed its victims, giving them the pale and we

56、sted appearance. another circumlocution employed was “decline”, a specialization of still current use of decline for progressive worsening of a persons health. other euphemisms for tuberculosis are “health seeker” or “tb”. cancer is also a name many dare not to speak. the currently modish euphemism

57、is the “big c”. in obituaries of cancer victims, death is usually identified discreetly as being after “a long illness”. the rather drastic incurable illness is also sometimes used, which might seem a bit strong for an euphemism, but is evidently felt to be more acceptable than cancer.in the 19th ce

58、ntury, mental illness was paid more attention from the westerns for the origins of it kept mysterious. euphemisms for “mental illness” have been varying. mental hospitl is euphemized as insane asylum or rest house. “handicap” refers to “physical or mental disability”. in daily life “the crippled” so

59、unds so cruel and sharp to those unfortunate groups of people that “physically handicapped” is employed. in britain, the “blind” are soothed with “visual deficit” and “visual handicap”; in america, called “unsighted handicapped”. a popular strategy in pulling the verbal screens round an illness is to use a very vague term whe