專業(yè)英語翻譯1

1、Basic Chemistry1. Atomic StructureMatter has mass and takes up space. Atoms are basic building blocks of matter, and cannot be chemically subdivided by ordinary means. Both the protons and neutrons reside in the nucleus. Protons have a positive (+) charge, neutrons have no charge -they are neutral.

2、Electrons reside in orbitals around the nucleus. They have a negative charge (-). It is the number of protons that determines the atomic number. The number of protons in an element is constant but neutron number may vary, so mass number (protons + neutrons) may vary. 1。原子結(jié)構物質(zhì)有質(zhì)量，占空間。原子是物質(zhì)的基本組成物，不能用普

3、通的方法進行化學細分。質(zhì)子和中子都駐留在原子核中。質(zhì)子有一個正電荷，中子是不帶電的，它們是中性的。電子在原子核周圍的軌道上。他們有一個負電荷-。它是確定原子序數(shù)的質(zhì)子數(shù)。在一個元素中的質(zhì)子的數(shù)量是恒定的，但中子數(shù)可能會有所不同，所以質(zhì)量數(shù)質(zhì)子+中子可能會有所不同。The same element may contain varying numbers of neutrons; these forms of an element are called isotopes. The chemical properties of isotopes are the same, although the

4、physical properties of some isotopes may be different. Some isotopes are radioactive-meaning they "radiate" energy as they decay to a more stable form, perhaps another element half-life: time required for half of the atoms of an element to decay into stable form. Another example is oxygen,

5、 with atomic number of 8 can have 8, 9, or 10 neutrons. 相同的元素可能含有不同數(shù)量的中子，這些元素的這些形式被稱為同位素。同位素的化學性質(zhì)是相同的，雖然一些同位素的物理性質(zhì)可能是不同的。一些同位素是放射性的，這意味著它們“輻射”能量，因為它們衰變到一個更穩(wěn)定的形式，也許另一個元素半衰期：所需的元素的原子的一半，衰變成穩(wěn)定的形式。另一個例子是氧氣，原子數(shù)為8，可以有8，9，或10個中子。Here is a list of the basic characteristics of atoms: An atom is a basic chemi

6、cal building block of matter. Atoms cannot be divided using chemicals. They do consist of parts, which include protons, neutrons, and electrons, but an atom is a basic chemical building block of matter. Each electron has a negative electrical charge. Each proton has a positive electrical charge. The

7、 charge of a proton and an electron are equal in magnitude, yet opposite in sign. Electrons and protons are electrically attracted to each other. 這里是一個原子的基本特征列表：原子是一個基本的化學構建塊的事。原子不可分為使用化學物質(zhì)。他們做的包括部分，其中包括質(zhì)子，中子和電子，但原子是一個基本的化學物質(zhì)塊的物質(zhì)。每個電子帶負電荷。每個質(zhì)子帶正電荷。一個質(zhì)子和一個電子的電荷在數(shù)量上是相等的，而在符號相反。電子和質(zhì)子相互電吸引。 Each neutron

8、 is electrically neutral. In other words, neutrons do not have a charge and are not electrically attracted to either electrons or protons. Protons and neutrons are about the same size as each other and are much larger than electrons. The mass of a proton is essentially the same as that of a neutron.

9、 The mass of a proton is 1840 times greater than the mass of an electron. The nucleus of an atom contains protons and neutrons. The nucleus carries a positive electrical charge. 每個中子是電中性的。換言之，中子不帶電，也沒有電吸引到電子或質(zhì)子。質(zhì)子與中子的大小相同、互比電子大得多。質(zhì)子的質(zhì)量與中子的質(zhì)量基本上是相同的。質(zhì)子的質(zhì)量比電子的質(zhì)量大1840倍。原子包含質(zhì)子和中子的核。細胞核攜帶正電荷。 Electrons m

10、ove around outside the nucleus. Almost all of the mass of an atom is in its nucleus; almost all of the volume of an atom is occupied by electrons. The number of protons (also known as its atomic number) determines the element. Varying the number of neutrons results in isotopes. Varying the number of

11、 electrons results in ions. Isotopes and ions of an atom with a constant number of protons are all variations of a single element. 電子繞核外。幾乎所有原子的質(zhì)量是其核心；幾乎所有原子的原子量是通過電子占領。質(zhì)子數(shù)也被稱為原子數(shù)決定元素。改變同位素的中子數(shù)。改變離子的數(shù)量。具有恒定數(shù)量的質(zhì)子的原子的同位素和離子都是一個單一元素的變化。 The particles within an atom are bound together by powerful forces

12、. In general, electrons are easier to add or remove from an atom than a proton or neutron. Chemical reactions largely involve atoms or groups of atoms and the interactions between their electrons. 原子內(nèi)部的粒子是由強大的力量結(jié)合在一起。在一般情況下，電子是更容易添加或刪除從一個原子比一個質(zhì)子或中子?；瘜W反應在很大程度上涉及原子或原子團，以及它們的電子之間的相互作用。2. Chemical Bondi

13、ngAtoms are the basic building blocks of all types of matter. Atoms link to other atoms through chemicals bonds resulting from the strong attractive forces that exist between the atoms. So what exactly is a chemical bond? It is a region that forms when electrons from different atoms interact with ea

14、ch other. The electrons that participate in chemical bonds are the valence electrons, which are the electrons found in an atom's outermost shell. When two atoms approach each other these outer electrons interact. Electrons repel each other, yet they are attracted to the protons within atoms. The

15、 interplay of forces results in some atoms forming bonds with each other and sticking together. 2。化學鍵原子是所有類型物質(zhì)的基本組成塊。原子通過化學鍵連接到其他原子，產(chǎn)生的原子之間存在著很強的引力作用。那么到底什么是化學鍵？當電子從不同的原子相互作用時，它是一個形成的區(qū)域。參與化學鍵的電子是價電子，這是在原子的最外層中發(fā)現(xiàn)的電子。當兩個原子相互接近時，這些外電子相互作用。電子相互排斥，但它們被原子內(nèi)的質(zhì)子所吸引。在某些原子的相互作用，形成相互聯(lián)系，并粘在一起的原子。 Ionic bondsIoni

16、c bonds arise from elements with low electronegativity (almost empty outer shells) reacting with elements with high electronegativity (mostly full outer shells). In this case there is a complete transfer of electrons.  A well known example is table salt, sodium chloride. Sodium gives up its one

17、 outer shell electron completely to chlorine which needs only one electron to fill its shell. Thus, the attraction between these atoms is much like static electricity since opposite charges attract. 離子鍵離子鍵出現(xiàn)低電負性元素幾乎是空的外殼具有高電負性元素的反應主要是完整的外殼。在這種情況下，有一個完整的電子轉(zhuǎn)移。 一個眾所周知的例子是表鹽，氯化鈉。鈉完全將它的一個外殼電子完全化為氯，只需要一個電

18、子來填充它的外殼。因此，這些原子之間的吸引力是很像靜電，因為相反的電荷吸引。 Covalent bondCovalent bonds involve a complete sharing of electrons and occurs most commonly between atoms that have partially filled outer shells or energy levels. Thus if the atoms are similar in negativity then the electrons will be shared. Carbon forms cova

19、lent bonds. The electrons are in hybrid orbitals formed by the atoms involved as in this example: ethane. Diamond is strong because it involves a vast network of covalent bonds between the carbon atoms in the diamond.共價鍵共價鍵涉及一個完整的共享電子，發(fā)生最常見的原子之間的部分填充的外殼或能量水平。因此，如果原子類似于負性，那么電子將被共享。碳形成共價鍵。電子在混合軌道形成的原子

20、所涉及的在這個例子：乙烷。鉆石是強大的，因為它涉及到一個巨大的網(wǎng)絡中的碳原子之間的共價鍵的鉆石。 Polar Covalent Bond.  These bonds are in between covalent and ionic bonds in that the atoms share electrons but the electrons spend more of their time around on atom versus the others in the compound. This type of bond occurs when the atoms invol

21、ved differ greatly in electronegativity. The most familiar example is water. Oxygen is much more electronegative than hydrogen, and so the electrons involved in bonding the water molecule spend more time there. The fact that water is a polar covalently bonded molecule has a number of implications fo

22、r molecules that are dissolved in water. In particular, molecules with polar covalent bonds can break apart when they encounter water molecules. They are broken apart because of the electrical attraction between the dissimilar charges of the molecules. Also, since ionically bonded molecules involve

23、ions with opposite charges, water with its polar covalent bonds can separate ions from each other and then surround the ions which prevents them from recombining. The properties of water all relate to this polar covalent bonding. 極性共價鍵。 這些債券是在共價鍵和離子鍵之間，原子共享電子，但電子花費更多的時間在原子與其他化合物在化合物中的原子之間的相互關系。這類債券時

24、所涉及的原子電負性大不同。最熟悉的例子是水。氧的電負性高于氫多，所以參與鍵合的水分子會花更多的時間在電子。水是一個極性共價鍵的分子的事實，有一些對溶解在水中的分子的影響。特別是，極性共價鍵的分子可以打破分開時，他們遇到水分子。他們被打破了，因為分子的不同電荷之間的電引力。同時，由于離子鍵分子與帶有相反電荷的離子，其極性共價鍵離子水可以分開彼此，然后圍繞離子阻止重組。水的性質(zhì)都與這種極性共價鍵合。 Hydrogen Bond.The fact that the oxygen end of a water molecule is negatively charged and the hydroge

25、n end positively charged means that the hydrogens of one water molecule attract the oxygen of its neighbor and vice versa. This is because unlike charges attract. This largely electrostatic attraction is called a hydrogen bond and is important in determining many important properties of water that m

26、ake it such an important liquid for living things. Water can also form this type of bond with other polar molecules or ions such as hydrogen or sodium ions. Further, hydrogen bonds can occur within and between other molecules. For instance, the two strands of a DNA molecule are held together by hydr

27、ogen bonds. Hydrogen bonding between water molecules and the amino acids of proteins are involved in maintaining the protein's proper shape. This picture represents a small group of water molecules. Hydrogen bonds between unlike charges are shown as lines without arrows on the ends. The double a

28、rrowed lines represent the fact that like charges repel each other. Both hydrogen bonds and the repelling forces balance each other and are both are important in determining the properties of water.氫鍵。事實上，一個水分子的氧端帶負電荷和正電荷的氫的結(jié)束意味著一個水分子的氫原子吸引氧鄰國和反之亦然。這是因為不同的收費吸引。這在很大程度上是靜電引力被稱為氫鍵，是重要的，在確定許多重要的水的性質(zhì)，使它成

29、為一個重要的生活的東西的液體。水也可以形成這種類型的鍵與其他的極性分子或離子，如氫或鈉離子。此外，氫鍵可以發(fā)生在和其他分子之間的。例如，一個DNA分子的兩條鏈通過氫鍵結(jié)合在一起。水分子與蛋白質(zhì)的氨基酸之間的氫鍵參與維持蛋白質(zhì)的適當?shù)男螤睢＿@張照片代表了一小組水分子。不同電荷之間的氫鍵被顯示為兩端沒有箭頭的線。雙箭頭線代表的是同種電荷互相排斥。氫鍵和排斥力相互平衡，都是在確定水的性質(zhì)很重要。3. Types of chemical reactionsA chemical reaction is a process that always results in the conversion of

30、reactants into product or products. The substance or substances initially involved in a chemical reaction are called reactants. A type of a chemical reaction is usually characterized by the type of chemical change, and it yields one or more products which are, in general, different from the reactant

31、s. Generally speaking, chemical reactions encompass changes that strictly involve the motion of electrons in the forming and breaking of chemical bonds. 三.化學反應的類型化學反應是一個過程，總是會導致反應物轉(zhuǎn)化為產(chǎn)品或產(chǎn)品。最初參與化學反應的物質(zhì)或物質(zhì)稱為反應物。一種化學反應的類型通常是由化學變化的類型，它產(chǎn)生一個或多個產(chǎn)品，在一般情況下，不同的反應物。一般來說，化學反應包括改變，嚴格涉及電子在化學鍵的形成和斷裂的運動。Chemical eq

32、uations are often used to describe the chemical transformations of elementary particles that occur during the reaction. Chemical changes are a result of chemical reactions. All chemical reactions involve a change in substances and a change in energy. However, neither matter nor energy is created or

33、destroyed in a chemical reaction. There are so many chemical reactions that it is helpful to classify them into different types including the widely used terms for describing common reactions.化學方程經(jīng)常被用來描述在反應過程中發(fā)生的基本粒子的化學變換。化學變化是化學反應的結(jié)果。所有的化學反應都涉及物質(zhì)的變化和能量的變化。然而，無論是物質(zhì)還是能量都在化學反應中被創(chuàng)造或消滅。有這么多的化學反應，它有助于將它們

34、分類成不同的類型，包括廣泛使用的術語來描述常見的反應。Combination reaction or synthesis reaction: it is a reaction in which 2 or more chemical elements or compounds unite to form a more complex product.Example: N2 + 3 H2 ? 2 NH3組合反應或合成反應：它是一種反應，其中2個或更多的化學元素或化合物結(jié)合起來，形成一個更復雜的產(chǎn)品。Isomerisation reaction: is a reaction in which a c

35、hemical compound undergoes a structural rearrangement without any change in its net atomic composition.Example: trans-2-butene and cis-2-butene are isomers. Chemical decomposition reaction or analysis: is a reaction in which a compound is decomposed into smaller compounds or elements: Example: 2 H2O

36、 ? 2 H2 + O2 異構化反應是一個反應的化合物進行結(jié)構重排不凈原子組成的任何變化。例如：反式-2-丁烯和反-2-丁烯是我薩默斯?；瘜W分解反應或分析：是一種反應，其中一種化合物被分解成較小的化合物或元素：Single displacement or substitution: this type of reaction is characterized by an element being displaced out of a compound by a more reactive element. Example: 2 Na(s) + 2 HCl(aq) ? 2 NaCl(aq) +

37、 H2(g) 單置換或置換：這種類型的反應，其特征在于由一個元素被流離失所的化合物由一個更活潑的元素。Metathesis or Double displacement reaction: represents a reaction in which two compounds exchange ions or bonds to form different compounds 置換或雙取代反應：表示的反應物或債券交換離子形成不同的化合物Acid-base reactions: broadly these reactions are characterized as reactions bet

38、ween an acid and a base, can have different definitions depending on the acid-base concept employed. Some of the most common are:酸堿反應：廣泛的反應，其特征是酸和堿之間的反應，可以有不同的定義，這取決于所采用的酸堿平衡。一些最常見的是：Arrhenius definition: Acids dissociate in water releasing H3O+ ions; bases dissociate in water releasing OH- ions. Br

39、ønsted-Lowry definition: Acids are proton (H+) donors; bases are proton acceptors. 阿倫尼烏斯的定義：酸游離在水中釋放H3O+離子；堿游離在水中釋放OH-離子。Br nstedøLowry定義：酸是質(zhì)子H +者；堿是質(zhì)子的受體。Lewis definition: Acids are electron-pair acceptors; bases are electron-pair donors. Example: HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) ? NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)劉易斯

40、定義：酸是電子對受體；堿是電子對供體。Redox reactions: are reactions in which changes in oxidation numbers of atoms in involved species occur. Those reactions can often be interpreted as transfer of electrons between different molecular sites or species. Example: 2 S2O32?(aq) + I2(aq) ? S4O62?(aq) + 2 I?(aq) 氧化復原反應：在所

41、涉及的物種中的原子的氧化數(shù)的變化的反應發(fā)生。這些反應通?？梢员唤忉尀椴煌姆肿游稽c或物種之間的電子轉(zhuǎn)移。In this case, I2 is reduced to I- and S2O32- (thiosulfate anion) is oxidized to S4O62-.Combustion reaction: it is a kind of redox reaction in which any combustible substance combines with an oxidizing element, usually oxygen, to generate heat and f

42、orm oxidized products. Example: C3H8 + 5 O2 ? 3 CO2 + 4 H2O 在這種情況下，I2減少到我和S2O32-硫代硫酸根陰離子氧化s4o62。燃燒反應：它是一種氧化復原反應，任何可燃物質(zhì)都結(jié)合了氧化元素，通常是氧氣，產(chǎn)生熱，形成氧化產(chǎn)物。Other types of chemical reactions include organic reactions which are found in organic chemistry.其他化學反應的類型包括有機化學反應中發(fā)現(xiàn)的有機化學反應。Organic reactions compose a wid

43、e variety of reactions involving compounds which have carbon as the main element in their molecular structure. In opposition to inorganic reactions, organic chemistry reactions are classified in large part by the types of the functional groups that exist within each compound. In this case the reacti

44、ons are described by showing the mechanisms through which the changes take place.有機反應合成了各種各樣的反應，其中以碳為主要元素的化合物在分子結(jié)構中。在對無機反應的反對，有機化學反應是在很大程度上是由在每個化合物中存在的官能團的類型的分類。在這種情況下，反應被描述通過示出的機制，通過該變化發(fā)生。Organic reactions are chemical reactions involving organic compounds. The basic organic chemistry reaction type

45、s are listed bellow:- Addition reactions- Elimination reactions- Substitution reactions- Redox reactions- Rearrangement reactions- Pericyclic reactions有機反應是涉及有機化合物的化學反應?；居袡C化學反應類型如下：-加成反應-消除反應-取代反應氧化復原反應重排反應Pericyclic反應4. What factors influence the rate of a chemical reaction?TemperatureConcentratio

46、ns of reactantsCatalystsSurface area of a solid reactantPressure of gaseous reactants or products4。什么因素影響一個化學反應的速率？溫度反應物濃度催化劑固體反應物的外表積氣態(tài)反應物或產(chǎn)物壓力If you are planning an investigation, I suggest that you investigate the effects of temperature or the effects of the concentration of the reactants because

47、 these will allow you to choose a suitable range of values for the controlled or independent variable. The dependent variable will be the rate of the reaction. Keep all the other variables fixed.To make a prediction for your investigation you will have to ask yourself the question: What will happen

48、to the rate of the reaction when I increase the temperature? or What will happen to the rate of the reaction if I increase the concentration of one of the reactants? The answer to that question is your prediction. The next thing to do is to explain your prediction. You will have to answer the questi

49、on: Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the temperature? or Why will the reaction go faster if I increase the concentration of one of the reactions? The answer to this question is your explanation, and to get the highest possible marks, you will have to provide a full scientific explanatio

50、n.如果你正在計劃一項調(diào)查，我建議你調(diào)查溫度的影響或反應物的濃度的影響，因為這些將允許你選擇一個合適的范圍內(nèi)的值的控制或獨立的變量。因變量將是反應的速率。保持所有其他變量固定。要為你的調(diào)查做一個預測，你必須問自己：當我增加溫度時，反應的速率會發(fā)生什么？如果我增加一個反應物的濃度，反應的速率會發(fā)生什么？這個問題的答案是你的預測。下一步要做的是解釋你的預測。你將不得不答復這個問題：為什么反應會走得更快，如果我增加溫度？或者，如果我增加一個反應的濃度，反應速度會更快？這個問題的答案是你的解釋，并獲得最高的可能的標志，你將不得不提供一個完整的科學解釋。Once you have written you

51、r hypothesis (prediction with explanation) you will decide how to do the experiments, i.e. write the proposed method.一旦你寫了你的假設預測與解釋，你將決定如何做實驗，即寫所提出的方法。 How does temperature affect the rate of a chemical reaction?When two chemicals react, their molecules have to collide with each other with sufficien

52、t energy for the reaction to take place. This is collision theory. The two molecules will only react if they have enough energy. By heating the mixture, you will raise the energy levels of the molecules involved in the reaction. Increasing temperature means the molecules move faster. This is kinetic

53、 theory. If your reaction is between atoms rather than molecules you just substitute "atom" for "molecule" in your explanation.溫度會如何影響化學反應速率？當兩種化學物質(zhì)發(fā)生反應時，它們的分子必須相互碰撞，以產(chǎn)生足夠的能量來發(fā)生反應。這是碰撞理論。這兩個分子只會反應，如果他們有足夠的能量。通過加熱混合物，你將提高在反應中所涉及的分子的能量水平。溫度的升高意味著分子移動得更快。這是動力學理論。如果你的反應是原子之間的，而不是分子，你

54、只是用“原子”的“分子”在你的解釋。 How do catalysts affect the rate of a reaction?Catalysts speed up chemical reactions. Only very minute quantities of the catalyst are required to produce a dramatic change in the rate of the reaction. This is really because the reaction proceeds by a different pathway when the cat

55、alyst is present. Adding extra catalyst will make absolutely no difference. There is a whole page on this site devoted to catalysts.如何影響反應速率的催化劑？催化劑加快化學反應。只有非常小的量的催化劑，需要產(chǎn)生一個戲劇性的反應速率的變化。這是真的，因為當催化劑存在時，通過一個不同的途徑進行反應。添加額外的催化劑將絕對沒有區(qū)別。在這個網(wǎng)站上有一個專門用于催化劑的整頁。 How does concentration affect the rate of a react

56、ion?Increasing the concentration of the reactants will increase the frequency of collisions between the two reactants. So this is collision theory again. You also need to discuss kinetic theory in an experiment where you vary the concentration. Although you keep the temperature constant, kinetic the

57、ory is relevant. This is because the molecules in the reaction mixture have a range of energy levels. When collisions occur, they do not always result in a reaction. If the two colliding molecules have sufficient energy they will react.如何濃度影響反應速率？增加反應物的濃度會增加兩種反應物之間的碰撞的頻率。所以這又是碰撞理論。你還需要在一個實驗中討論的動力學理論

58、，在那里你改變濃度。雖然你保持的溫度常數(shù)，動力學理論是相關的。這是因為在反應混合物中的分子有一個范圍的能量水平。當碰撞發(fā)生時，他們并不總是導致反應。如果這兩個碰撞分子有足夠的能量，他們會作出反應。If reaction is between a substance in solution and a solid, you just vary the concentration of the solution. The experiment is straightforward. If the reaction is between two solutions, you have a sligh

59、t problem. Do you vary the concentration of one of the reactants or vary the concentration of both? You might find that the rate of reaction is limited by the concentration of the weaker solution, and increasing the concentration of the other makes no difference. What you need to do is fix the concentration of on