《新編簡(jiǎn)明英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程》1-6章期末復(fù)習(xí)

1、Chapter one In troducti on1.1什么是語(yǔ)言學(xué)定義語(yǔ)言學(xué) LinguisticsLin guistics is gen erally defi ned as the scie ntific study of Ian guage .1.1.2The scope of linguistics語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支 必考 P2普通語(yǔ)言學(xué) General LinguisticsThe study of Ian guage as a whole is ofte n called Gen eral lin guistics.The study of soun ds, which are use

2、d in lin guistic com muni cati on, is called phon etics.語(yǔ)音學(xué)The study of how sounds are put together and used in com muni cati on is calledphono logy.音位學(xué)The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are calledmorphology .形態(tài)學(xué)The study of how morphemes and words are combined to for

3、m sentences is calledsyntax 句法學(xué)The study of meaning in Ian guage is called sema ntics.語(yǔ)義學(xué)The study of meaning in con text of use is called pragmatics.語(yǔ)用學(xué)1.1.3 Some important distinctions in linguistics 成對(duì)的概念辨析差異 必考 P31Prescriptive and descriptive 規(guī)定與描寫(xiě)If a linguistic study describes and analyzes the

4、 Ianguage people actually use, it is said to be descriptive, if it aims to lay down rules to tell people what they should say and what they should not say, it is said to be prescriptive.Modern linguistics differs from traditional grammar. Traditional grammar is prescriptive while modern linguistics

5、is descriptive. The task of linguists is supposed to describe the Ianguagepeople actually use, whether it is“ correct or not.規(guī)定性 PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for correct behavior, to tell people what they should say and what should not say.描述性 DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and ana

6、lyzes the Ianguage people actually use.(2) Synchronic and diachronic 共時(shí)和歷時(shí)The description of a Ianguage at some point in time is a synchronic study; the description of a Ian guage as it cha nges through time is a diachr onic study .In moder n lin guistics, synchronic study is more importa nt.歷時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué) D

7、iachronic linguisticsThe study of Ianguage change through time. a diachronic study of Ianguage is a historical study, which studies the historical development of Ianguage over a period of time .共時(shí)語(yǔ)言學(xué) Synchronical linguisticsThe study of a give n Ian guage at a give n time.(3) Speech and writing 口頭語(yǔ)與

8、書(shū)面語(yǔ)Speech and writi ng are the two major media of com muni cati on. Moder n lin guistics regards the spoke n form of Ian guage as primary, but not the writte n form. Reas ons are: 1. Speech precedes writi ng; 2. There are still many Ian guages that have only the spoke n form; 3. In terms of function

9、, the spoken Ianguage is used for a wider range of purposes than the written, and carries a larger load of com muni cati on tha n the writte n.(4) Langue and parole語(yǔ)言和言語(yǔ) 必考名解P4The Swiss linguist F. de Saussure made the distinction between Iangue and parole early 20th cen tury.Lan gue refers to the a

10、bstract li nguistic system shared by all the members of a speech com mun ity, and parole refers to the realizati on of Ian gue in actual use. Saussure made the dist inction in order to sin gle out one aspect of Ian guage for serious study. He believes what lin guists should do is to abstract Ian gue

11、 from parole, to discover the regularities gover ning the actual use of Ian guage and make them the subjects of study of lin guistics.語(yǔ)言Iangue 抽象The abstract lin guistic system shared by all members of a speech com muni ty.言語(yǔ)parole 具體The realizati on of Ian gue in actual use.5Compete nee and perform

12、a nee 語(yǔ)言能力和語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用Proposed by American linguist N. Chomsky in the late 1950' s.He defi nes compete nee as the ideal user ' knowledge of the rules of his Ian guage, and performa nce the actual realizati on of this kno wledge in lin guistic com muni cati on. He believes the task of the lin guists

13、 is to discover and specify the Ian guage rules.語(yǔ)言能力Competence 抽象Competence is the ideal user' s knowledge of the rules of his Ianguage.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用 performance具體Performa nce is the actual realizati on of this kno wledge in lin guistic com muni cati on.語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用是所掌握的規(guī)那么在語(yǔ)言交際中的具體表達(dá)。6 Traditional grammar and m

14、odern linguistics 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法和現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)法It is gen erally believed that the begi nning of modern lin guistics was marked by the publicati on of F de Saussure ' s book “ Course in General Linguistics centhEyeBiEfo20 that istraditi onal grammar.Differences betwee n traditi onal grammar and moder n lin guistics:

15、Modern linguistics is descriptive while traditional grammar is prescriptive.Modern linguistics regards the spoken Ianguage as primary, not the written.Moder n lin guistics differs from traditi onal grammar also in that it does not force Ian guages into aLat in- based framework.Modern linguistics is

16、descriptive, its investigations are based on authentic and mainly spoken Ian guage date.現(xiàn)代語(yǔ)言學(xué)是描述性的，其研究以確實(shí)可靠的、主要以口語(yǔ)形式的資料為根底。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on' high written Ianguage. 傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法是規(guī)定性 的，研究高級(jí)書(shū)面語(yǔ)。1.2什么是語(yǔ)言定義語(yǔ)言 Ian guage: Lan guage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used

17、for huma n com muni cati on. 語(yǔ)言是人類用來(lái)交際的任意性的有聲符號(hào)體系。1.2.2 Design features of Ianguage必考 P8It refers to the defining properties of human Ianguage that distinguish it from any animal systemof com muni cati on.語(yǔ)言識(shí)別特征是指人類語(yǔ)言區(qū)別與其他任何動(dòng)物的交際體系的限定性特征。Arbitrari ness 任意性Productivity多產(chǎn)性創(chuàng)造性Duality雙重性Displacement 移位性

18、Cultural transmission 文化傳遞 arbitrari nessThere is no logical connection betwee n meanings and soun ds.PS the arbitrary nature of Ianguage is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible forIan guage to have an un limited source of expressi ons 精選 ProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the mes

19、sages they are able to send. DualityLan guage is a system, which con sists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. Displaceme ntLan guage can be used to refer to con texts removed from the immediate situati ons of the speaker. Cultural tran smissi onHuman capacity for Ianguage has a genetic basis,

20、 but we have to be taught and learned the details of any Ianguage system. this showed that Ianguage is culturally transmitted. not by in sti net. ani mals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.1.2.3 Fun ctio ns of Ian guage 語(yǔ)言的功能Descriptive fun cti on, expr

21、essive fun ctio n, social fun ctio nSix eleme nts of a speech eve nt specified by Jakobs on:Addresser - Emotive 感情功能Addressee - Conative 意動(dòng)功能Context - Referential 所指功能Message - Poetic 詩(shī)歌功能Contact - Phatic communion 應(yīng)酬功能Code - Metalinguistic 無(wú)語(yǔ)言功能Chapter Two Phono logy2.2 Phonetics 語(yǔ)音學(xué)定義Phon etics: t

22、he study of the phonic medium of Ian guage: it is concerned with all the sounds that occur in the world ' s Ianguages.是指對(duì)語(yǔ)言的語(yǔ)音媒介進(jìn)行的研究，它關(guān)注語(yǔ)言世界中的所有語(yǔ)音2.2.2 Orga ns of speech3 個(gè)區(qū)域：the pharyngeal cavity 卩因腔-the throat， the oral cavity 口腔-the mouth，nasal cavity 鼻腔-the nose清音 VoicelessWhen the vocal co

23、rds are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a con diti on are called voiceless soun ds.濁音 VoicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrati ng are called voiced soun ds.fThe speech organs 1. lips 2 teed)4. hard pihte loft palate ( ve

24、lum) uvulatip of tongue bladu ol tongue of tongue vocJ coralsgeal cavity5.6.7+8.g*1011.12,cavity125& I.jX廠!1.ffe 魅f(wàn)t舌 %« ! 5 9發(fā)音器官2齒3齒餵6 小舌H舌尖10.聲帶11*咽腔4 硯腭8舌面12小腔寬式音標(biāo)和嚴(yán)式音標(biāo)寬式音標(biāo) Broad transcriptionThe tran scripti on of speech sounds with letter symbols only.嚴(yán)式音標(biāo) Narrow transcriptionThe tran

25、 scripti on of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.送氣 Aspirated不送氣 Un aspirated2.2.4Classificati on of En glish speech sound 英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)音的分類Vowel and consonant 元音 輔音VowelThe sounds in the product ion of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the voc

26、al tract without obstruct ion are called vowels.Classification of English consonantsa: in terms of the manners of articulation 發(fā)音方式:Stops爆破音:pb td kg 6Fricatives摩擦音:/f/ /v/ 0 / /e/s/ /z/ ? / ?/ h/ /r/ 8Affricatives塞擦音:/t ? /d ?Liquids清音:/l/ /r/Nasals鼻音:/m,n, n /Glides 滑音:/w j/b: in terms of place of

27、 articulation 發(fā)音部位bilabials雙唇音:/p b m w/labiodentals唇齒音:/f v/dentals齒音:/e/ 0 /alveolars齒齦音:/t d n I r s/ 6 palatals腭音:/j ? ? t?d / 5 velars軟腭音:/k g n / glottal喉音:/h/Classificatio n of En glish vowels a: the positi on of the tone in mouth: front, cen tral, back,b: the openness of the mouth: closed se

28、mi -closed semi-open and open.c: the shape of the lips: roun ded and unroun dedd: the len gth of the vowels: tense and lax or long and short“pen2.3Pho nplogy 音位學(xué)2.3.2Pho ne, pho neme and alloph one音素Phonea pho netic un it or segme nt.音位 Phonemea collect ion of abstract sound features, a phono logica

29、l un it.音位變體AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments are called the allopho nes of that phon eme.2.3.4 explain the sequential rule and the assimilation rule .序列規(guī)那么 Sequential rulesRules that gover n the comb in ati on of sounds in a particular Ian guage.同化規(guī)那

30、么 Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimilates one sound to another by' copying ' feature of a sequential phon eme, thus making the two phones similar.省略規(guī)那么Deletion ruleIt' s a pho no logical rule which tells us whe n a sound is to be deleted although its orthographically represe

31、nted.2.3.5 Suprasegme ntal features超 音段特征重音Stress聲調(diào)ToneTones are pitch variati ons, which are caused by the differi ng rates of vibrati on of the vocal cords.語(yǔ)調(diào) IntonationChapter Three Morphology 形態(tài)學(xué)3.2 Open class and closed classOpen class words實(shí)詞，詞數(shù)可增加Closed class words虛詞，詞數(shù)穩(wěn)定3.3 Morphemes 詞素詞素 Mo

32、rphemeThe basic un it i n the study of morphology and the smallest meanin gful un it of Ian guage.自由詞素 Free MorphemeFree morphemes are in depe ndent un its of meaning and can be used freely all by themselves.黏著詞素 Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, mu

33、st be comb inedwith other morphemes to form words that can be used in depe nden tly.3.4詞根RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be further an alyzed without total loss of ide ntity.詞綴AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added to another morpheme.3.4

34、 Derivati onal morpheme & in flect ional morpheme派生 Derivational morpheme s: the morphemes which change the category or grammatical classof wordsE.g. modern-modernize length -lengthen, fool -foolish, etc.曲折 Inflectional morphemes : the morphemes which are for the most part purely grammaticalmark

35、ers,signify such concepts as tense, number, case and so on; they never change theirsyn tactic category, n ever add any lexical meaning,E.g. a) Number: tables apples carsb) Person, fin ite ness and aspect: talk/talks/talk in g/talked c) Case: Joh n/John'派生詞 Derivation復(fù)合詞 CompoundsChapter Four Sy

36、ntax 句法學(xué)句法學(xué) Syntax A branch of linguistics that studies how words are combined to form sentencesand the rules that govern the formati on of senten ces.(句法學(xué)是研究詞是如何組成句子以及如何支配句子構(gòu)成規(guī)那么的一個(gè)語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支)Phrase categories and their structures 短語(yǔ)分類與結(jié)構(gòu)精選Phrase categoriesthe syn tactic un its that are built around a c

37、erta in word category are called phrase categories, such as noun phrase: NP (N), verb phrase: VP (V), adjective phrase: AP (A), and prepositio nal: PP (P).The structure : specifier + head + complementHead (中心語(yǔ)) - the word around which a phrase is formedSpecifier (標(biāo)志成分) - the words on the left side o

38、f the headsComplement (補(bǔ)足成分) - the words on the right side of the headsPhrase structure rules:The grammatical mecha nism that regulates the arran geme nt of eleme nts that make up a phrase is called a phrase structure rule, such as:NP (Det 限定詞)+ N + (PP) e.g. those people, the fish on the plate, pre

39、tty girls.VP (Qual 修飾詞)+ V + (NP) e.g. always play games, finish assignments.AP (Deg 程度詞)+ A + (PP) vetyidsome, very pessimistic, familiar with, very close to PP(Deg) + P + (NP) onthe shelf, in the boat, quite near the stationSt NP VP (A sentence consists of, or is rewritten as, a noun phrase and a

40、verb phrase) Do in serti on: Insert in terrogative do in to an empty Infl positi on.句法類型 Syntactic categoryA word or phrase that performs a particular grammatical function such as the subject or object.表層結(jié)構(gòu)S-structureA level of syn tactic represe ntati on after the operati on of n ecessary syn tacti

41、c moveme nt.深層結(jié)構(gòu)D-structureA level of syn tactic represe ntati on before the operati on of n ecessary syn tactic moveme nt.普遍語(yǔ)法 General grammarA system of lin guistic kno wledge which con sists of some gen eral prin ciples and parameters about n ature Ian guage.NP ' the student who likes linguis

42、tics ' consists of Det, N and S with Det being the Specifier ,N the head, S the complement. NP()有冠詞、名詞和子句組成， 冠詞是指示語(yǔ)，名詞是核心詞, 子句是補(bǔ)足語(yǔ)。4.6.5 Move a and constraints on transformationsa位移和轉(zhuǎn)換的限制必考定義和作用This general rule is referred to as Move a , where “ alpha is a cover term for any element that can be

43、 moved from one place to ano ther.我也不知道作用是啥，就會(huì)用這章重點(diǎn)就是畫(huà)圖Chapter 5 Sema ntics語(yǔ)義學(xué) Semantics: the study of meaning from the linguistic point of view對(duì)意義的研究同義詞 SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synony ms.多義詞PolysemyIt

44、refers to differe nt words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more tha n one meaning.同音形異義HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, differe nt words are ide ntical in sound or spelli ng, or in both.上下義關(guān)系 HyponymyIt r

45、efers to the sense relation between a more general, more inclusive word and a more specific word. the word which is more gen eral in meaning is called superord in ate, and the more specific words are called its hyp ony ms.反義詞AntonymyIt' s the term used for oppositeness of meaning on different di

46、mension.預(yù)設(shè) PresuppositionIt' s a sema ntic relati on ship or logical conn ecti on. A presupposes B.蘊(yùn)涵 EntailmentEntailment can be illustrated by the following tow sentences in which sentence A entails sentenceB.A: Mark married a blonde heiress.B: Mark married a bion de.句子間的意義關(guān)系 sense relati on b

47、etwee n sentencesX is synon ymous with Y.互為同義、同對(duì)錯(cuò)X entails Y.包含關(guān)系-X包含YX presupposes Y.假設(shè)、推測(cè) 由X推測(cè)出 YX is a contradiction. 矛盾句X is sema ntically ano malous.不等邏輯、錯(cuò)誤邏輯5.2.3 Contextualism語(yǔ)境論 必考，考啥未知 P64自己看書(shū)5.5.1 Comp onen tial an alysis語(yǔ)義成分分析 Comp onen tial an alysisComp onen tial an alysis is a way prop

48、osed by the structure sema nticists 結(jié)構(gòu)語(yǔ)義學(xué) to an alyze word meaning. The approach is based upon the belief that the meaning of a world can be dissected into meaning components, called semantic features 語(yǔ)義特征述謂分析 Predicati on an alysisA way to an alyze sentence meaning.主項(xiàng)論元 argume nt + 謂詞predicateEg. T

49、he dogs主項(xiàng)barks謂詞.帶一個(gè)主項(xiàng)的述謂on e-place predicati onChapter 6 pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)Pragmatics必考The study of how speakers of a Ian guage use sentences to effect successful com muni cati on.The study of Ian guage in use or Ian guage com muni cati on; the study of the use of con text to make inference about meanin

50、g.Pragmatics=sema ntics+c on text語(yǔ)境 ContextIt is gen erally con siderd as con stituted by the kno wledge shared by the speaker and the hearer.語(yǔ)句意義與話語(yǔ)意義Sentence meaning V.S uttera nee meaningIf we take it as a grammatical unit and consider it as a self -contained unit in isolation, then we treat it a

51、s a sentence.If we take it as something a speaker utters in a certain situation with a certain purpose, then we are treating it as an utterance .Utterance is based on sentence meaning; it is the realization of the abstract meaning of a sentence in a real situati on of com muni cati on, or simply in

52、a con text.6.2言語(yǔ)行為理論Speech act theory必考P80It' s an important theory in the pragmatic study of Ianguage. it ' s a philosophical explanation of the n ature of lin guistic com muni cati on .it aims to an swer the questio n what do we do whe nusing Ian guage?The con cept of causatives performati

53、ves, the locuti onary act 言內(nèi)行為 ，the illocuti onary act 言外行為，the perlocutionary act 言后行為 and the categories of illocutionary actsuggested and formulated by J.R.Searle con stitute the speech act theory.言內(nèi)行為 Locutionary ActA locutionary act is the act of uttering words, phrases ,clauses. it ' s the act of conveying literal meaning by means of syn tax, lexic on and phono logy.精選言外行為川coti on ary ActAn illocutionary act is the act of expressing the speaker ' s intention it