自考英語詞匯學(xué)翻譯精華整理

1、English Lexicology(英語詞匯學(xué))1.English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages.英語詞匯學(xué)旨在調(diào)查和研究英語單詞和單詞的等價(jià)物的形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu),其語義結(jié)構(gòu)、關(guān)系、歷史發(fā)展、形成和用法。2.English Lexicolog

2、y is correlated with such linguistic disciplines as morphology(形態(tài)學(xué)), semantics(語義學(xué)), etymology(詞源學(xué)),stylistics（文體論） and lexicography(詞典學(xué))Chapter 1-Basic concepts of words and vocabulary1.Word（詞的定義）: A word is a minimal free form of a language that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function

3、. (1)a minimal free form of a language (2)a sound unity (3)a unit of meaning (4)a form that can function alone in a sentence詞語是語言最小的自由形式，擁有固定的聲音和意義以及句法作用。2.Sound and meaning（聲音與意義）: almost arbitrary, “no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing

4、and idea itself” 詞語是一個(gè)符號(hào)，代表著世界上其他的事物。每種世界文化已經(jīng)贊成一定的讀音將代表一定的人，事，地方，特性，過程，行動(dòng)，當(dāng)然是在語言系統(tǒng)之外。這種象征性的聯(lián)系幾乎總是主觀的，并且“在代表事物和思想的聲音和實(shí)際的事物和思想之間沒有法定關(guān)系”3.Sound and form（讀音和形式）:不統(tǒng)一的四個(gè)原因（1）the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans,which does not have a separate letter to represent each other內(nèi)因是因?yàn)橛⒄Z字母表采用羅馬字母，羅馬字母沒

5、有獨(dú)立的字母代表每個(gè)讀音，因此一些字母代表兩個(gè)讀音或者組合在一起發(fā)音。 （2）the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years另一個(gè)原因是發(fā)音比拼寫的變化快，在一些時(shí)候還拉開了距離。在最近五百年里，盡管口語發(fā)音已經(jīng)出現(xiàn)了顯著的變化，卻沒有相應(yīng)的拼寫變化。（3）some of the difference were created by the early scribes第三個(gè)原因是一些早期的書寫員發(fā)明了一些不同。（4）the borrowings is an important channel of

6、enriching the English vocabulary最后借詞來了，這是豐富英語詞匯的重要途徑。（5）printing印刷已經(jīng)變得非常普及。它有助于固定單詞的拼寫、standardization標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化使得拼寫不容改變。、dictionary字典在拼寫終結(jié)中得到好處。Old English,The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 古代英語中的口語比今天更忠實(shí)的代表書面語The written form of English is an im

7、perfect representation of the spoken form。英語的書寫是發(fā)音形式不完善的代表4.What is vocabulary？（1）Total number of the words in a language一個(gè)語言的單詞綜合（2）Words used in a particular historical period 特殊歷史時(shí)期使用的單詞（3）All the words of a dialect，a book ，a discipline.某個(gè)方言，書籍，學(xué)科中的所有單詞5. Classification of English Words：英語詞匯由所有種類

8、的詞匯組成。它們可以根據(jù)不同的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或者不同的目的進(jìn)行分類。By use frequency:basic word stock&nonbasic vocabulary根據(jù)使用頻率，單詞可以分為基礎(chǔ)詞和非基礎(chǔ)詞。By notion:content words&functional words可以根據(jù)概念分成實(shí)詞和虛詞By origin:native words&borrowed words可以根據(jù)來源分為本地詞和借詞。6. The basic word stock（基本詞匯）: is the foundation of the vocabulary accumulated

9、over centuries and forms the common core of the language. Though it constitute a small percentage of the EV, it is the most important part of vocabulary. 基礎(chǔ)詞是幾世紀(jì)積累的詞匯的基礎(chǔ)，構(gòu)成語言的核心。盡管基礎(chǔ)詞占英語詞匯比例小，它仍然是最重要的組成部分。7. The Fundamental Features of the Basic Word Stock(基本詞匯的基本特征):1)All-National character（全民通用性mo

10、st important） 2)Stability（相對(duì)穩(wěn)定性 relative） 3)Productivity（多產(chǎn)性 are mostly root words or monosyllabic words） 4)Polysemy（多義性） 5)Collocability（可搭配性）8. nonbasic vocabulary(1)Terminology(術(shù)語) (2)Jargon（行話） (3)slang（俚語） (4)Argot（暗語） （5）Dialectal words(方言) (6) Archaisms（古語） (7) Neologisms（新詞語）:Neologisms mean

11、s newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings.(email) 是新建立的詞或者表達(dá)，或者已經(jīng)采用新意的詞。9. Terminology consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine、in mathematics、in music、in education. 包括特定學(xué)科的技術(shù)術(shù)語和學(xué)術(shù)領(lǐng)域Jargon refers to the speciali

12、zed vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves用于特定的詞匯，通過特定藝術(shù)，科學(xué)，商業(yè)和專業(yè)領(lǐng)域的成員在彼此之間交流Slang belongs to the sub-standard language ,a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to eve

13、ryone and in-group words like cant, jargon, and argot俚語粗話屬于低等語言，處在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)通用語言，（包括每人用的非正式詞匯）和團(tuán)體內(nèi)部語言包括cant(任何下等團(tuán)體的行話)，jargons,argot10. slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive俚語生動(dòng)，直率，印象深刻而且感人11. Certain words are labeled 'slang' not because their appearance or pronunciation but because

14、of their usage特定詞被標(biāo)示為“俚語”不是因?yàn)樗麄兊膶懛ê桶l(fā)音，而是因?yàn)樗麄兊挠梅?2. Content words/notional words實(shí)詞Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notional words. They include nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs and numerals內(nèi)容詞表示清楚的概念，因?yàn)楸徽J(rèn)為是概念詞。他們包括名詞，動(dòng)詞。形容詞，副詞和數(shù)詞13. functional words/empty words虛詞Functional wo

15、rds do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as form words. Prepositions, conjunctions, auxiliaries and articles belong to

16、 this category. 功能詞沒有他們自己的概念。因此，他們也稱作“空詞”。由于他們的主要功能是去表達(dá)概念間的關(guān)系，詞語間和句子間的關(guān)系，他們被認(rèn)為是“結(jié)構(gòu)詞”。介詞，連詞，輔助詞和冠詞屬于這一類14.區(qū)別：Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabul

17、ary, remain stable. However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words 內(nèi)容詞，構(gòu)成了英語詞匯的主體，是數(shù)量多的。并且那數(shù)量還在增長，然而，功能詞，只占詞匯的很少一部分，保持穩(wěn)定。然而，功能詞比內(nèi)容詞在表達(dá)上做了更多的工作15. Native words本地詞：1. Neutral in style風(fēng)格中性2. Frequent in use使用頻繁（1）Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small i

18、n number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000盎格魯撒克遜源頭詞數(shù)量很少，大約在50000到60000之間（2）they form the mainstream of the basic word stock 他們構(gòu)成了基本詞匯的主流（3）stand at the core of the language處在語言的核心16. Words taken over from foreign languages are known as borrowed words or loan words or borrowings in simple terms從

19、外國帶來的詞被認(rèn)為是“借詞”“借代詞”或者“所借的”17. Denizens are words borrowed early in the past and now well assimilated into the English language. 同化詞是過去早期借詞，現(xiàn)在很好的同化進(jìn)了英語Aliens are borrowed words which have retained their original pronunciation and spelling非同化詞是保留了原始發(fā)音和拼寫的借詞Translation-loans are words and expressions f

20、ormed from the existing material in the English language but modelled on the patterns taken from another language. 翻譯借詞是從英語中的現(xiàn)有材料中取材構(gòu)成，但是模仿其他語言的構(gòu)成方式。Semantic-loans. Words of this category are not borrowed with reference to the form. But their meanings are borrowed. 借義詞這類詞不是參考形式借來，但是他們的意義是借來的。Chapter

21、 2 the development of the English Vocabulary第二章 英語詞匯的發(fā)展1. The English language is not the language of the early inhabitants of the British Isles. 英語不是英國群島上原住民的語言。2. The Indo-European Language Family(印歐語系) The Eight Groups in Indo-European Family of Languages（8大印歐語群）The Eastern set:（1）The Balto-slavi

22、c Group（波羅的-斯拉夫語族）：Prussian, Lithuanian, Polish, Czech, Bulgarian, Slovenian and Russian普魯士語，立陶宛語，波蘭語，捷克語，保加利亞語，斯洛文尼亞語，俄語（2）The Indo-Iranian Group（印度-伊朗語族）：Persian, Bengali, Hindi, Romany波斯語，孟加拉語，印地語，吉普賽語(3)The Armenian Group（亞美尼亞語族）：Armenian.(4)The Albanian Group（阿爾巴尼亞語族）：Albanian.The Western set:(

23、5)The Hellenic Group（古希臘語族）：Greek.(6)The Italian Group（意大利語族）：Latin ,Romance languages(French,Italian,Spanish, portuguese,Romanian) etc. 五種拉丁語言，就是葡萄牙語，西班牙語，法語，意大利語，羅馬尼亞語都屬于意大利語系(7)The Celtic Group（凱爾特語族）：Scottish, Irish, Welsh, Breton, etc蘇格蘭語，愛爾蘭語，威爾士語，布里多尼語等(8)The Germanic Group（日耳曼語族）：German, Dut

24、ch, Flemish and English,Scandinavian(Norwegian, Icelandic, Danish and Swedish) etc. ，德語，荷蘭語，弗蘭德語和英語 （挪威語， 冰島語，丹麥語和瑞典語）這些都被稱作斯堪的納維亞語言3.A historical overview of the English Vocabulary英語詞匯的歷史概述（1）The first inhabitants were Celts. Their languages were Celtic. 現(xiàn)在所指最早的居民是凱爾特人，他們的語言仍然是印歐語系的另一分支凱爾特語的方言（2）Th

25、e second major language known in England was the Latin of the Roman Legions. In 55-54 B.C., the Romans invaded the British Isles英國的第二種主要語言是羅馬軍團(tuán)的拉丁語，在公元前55到54年，羅馬人入侵英倫群島（3）Celtic made only a small contribution to the English vocabulary凱爾特語只對(duì)英語詞匯有很小的貢獻(xiàn)4. Old English (450-1150) (vocabulary 50,000 to 60

26、,000)= Anglo-Saxon（1）Latin-speaking Roman missionaries under came to spread Christianity in Britain at the end of the 6th century. 在6世紀(jì)末期，拉丁語的羅馬傳教士來傳播基督教（2）users of Old English did not borrow as heavily from Latin or other languages in this period as they did later古代英語的使用者并不像他們后來做的那樣大量從拉丁和其他語言借詞（3）T

27、he common practice was to create new words by combining two native words.handbook通常情況用組合兩個(gè)本地詞的形式來創(chuàng)造新詞（4）many Scandinavian words came into the English language許多斯堪的納維亞詞匯進(jìn)入了英語（5）it was a high inflected language with complex endings它是高度轉(zhuǎn)折的語言正象現(xiàn)代的德語5.Middle English (1150-1500):retaines much fewer inflec

28、tions（1）The Norman conquest started a continual flow of French words into English諾曼征服開始了法國詞匯不斷進(jìn)入英語的洪流（2）The situation of three languages(Latin,French,English)existing simultaneously continued for over a century三種語言并存的情況存在了一百多年（3）Britain had trade relations with the low countries，especially Holland英國

29、和低等國家有貿(mào)易關(guān)系，特別是荷蘭（4）Middle English retained much fewer inflections中世紀(jì)英語保留更少的轉(zhuǎn)折If we say that Old English was a language of full endings，Middle English was one of leveled endings. 如果我們說老英語是一種擁有完整結(jié)尾的語言,中世紀(jì)英語是一個(gè)水平結(jié)尾。6.Modern English (1500-up to now): （1）Early（1500-1700）（2）late （1700-up to the present）（1

30、）In the early period of Modern English，known as the Renaissance，many new words taken by scholars from Latin and Greek entered into English許多是學(xué)者從拉丁文和希臘文中提?。?）Latinate flavour of Modern English現(xiàn)代英語的拉丁風(fēng)格。（3）In the mid-seventeenth century，English absorbed words from all major languages of the world在十七世紀(jì)

31、中期，英語從所有世界的主要語言中吸收詞匯。（4）Since the beginning of 20th century，more words are created by means of word-formation從本世紀(jì)初開始，更多的詞通過構(gòu)詞法被創(chuàng)造出來English has evolved from a synthetic language(Old English) to the present analytic language.英語已經(jīng)由合成語言（古代英語）進(jìn)化為現(xiàn)代分析語言7. Growth of Present-day English Vocabulary three mai

32、n sources：總體來說，有三條新詞的主要來源（1）the rapid development of modern science and technology （45 ）現(xiàn)代科學(xué)和技術(shù)的迅猛發(fā)展（2）social, economic and political changes（11 ）社會(huì)，經(jīng)濟(jì)和政治的變化（3）the influence of other cultures and languages（ 24 ）其它文化和語言的影響8.Modes of Vocabulary Development詞匯發(fā)展的樣式（1）Creations: Creation refers to the fo

33、rmation of new words by using the existing materials, namely roots, affixes and other elements. 創(chuàng)造是指新詞的構(gòu)成通過使用現(xiàn)有的材料，也就是說，詞根，詞綴和其他元素。（2）Semantic change means an old form which takes on a new meaning to meet the new need. 意義改變意味著一個(gè)老的形式獲取新含義以便去應(yīng)對(duì)新的需要。（3）Borrowing has played a vital role in the developme

34、nt of vocabulary, particularly in earlier times. 借詞曾經(jīng)在詞匯的發(fā)展中扮演了至關(guān)重要的角色，特別是在早期。（4）Reviving archaic or obsolete words also contributes to the growth of English vocabulary though quite insignificant. 恢復(fù)的古詞或者廢棄的詞也對(duì)英語詞匯的成長做出了貢獻(xiàn)。盡管收效甚微。Chapter 3 Word Formation I概念：詞素、語素、語素變體1.The minimal meaningful units

35、are known as morphemes.the morpheme is ' the smallest functioning unit in the composition of words'.最小的意義單位叫做“詞素”。詞素是“詞語組成中最小的功能單位”。2.Morphemes are abstract units, which are realized in speech by discrete units known as morphs.詞素是抽象的單位，在話語中被認(rèn)知通過分開的單位，這單位叫做“語素”。'They are actual spoken , m

36、inimal carriers of meaning'. 它們實(shí)際上是能發(fā)音的最小的意義載體。The morpheme is to the morph what a phoneme is to a phone.語素是一個(gè)音素發(fā)音的詞素。3. Morphemes coincide with words as they can stand by themselves and function freely in a sentence .they are called monomorphemic words.語素與詞相同，由于它們能代表含義而且能夠在句子中自由起作用。這種詞叫做單一語素詞4.

37、 Morphemes which are realized by more than one morph according to their position in a word. Such alternative morphs are known as allomorphs.一些詞素被按照語素在其中排列而認(rèn)識(shí)，那些替換的語素被稱為”語素變體”。5.the morpheme of plurality |-s復(fù)數(shù)詞素（s）：tpk后面（-s）、dbgl后面（-z）、iz是在sz J, 3, tj, C13之后the past tense過去形式 simple present 一般現(xiàn)在時(shí) pos

38、sessive 所有格 comparative or superlative degrees 比較級(jí)和最高級(jí)6.（1）Free Morphemes（自由詞素）: have complete meaning in themselves and can be used as free grammatical units in sentences. A free morpheme is one that can stand by itself. (which are independent of other morphemes are considered to be free). 不依靠其他語素的

39、語素是自由語素。這些語素自己有完整的意義可以在句子中當(dāng)作自由的語法單位來使用。（2）Bound Morphemes(粘著語素): A bound morpheme is one that cannot stand by itself. They are bound to other morphemes to form words. Bound morphemes are chiefly found in derived words. +例子 不能作為獨(dú)立詞出現(xiàn)的語素是粘連語素。這樣稱呼因?yàn)樗鼈冋尺B其他語素去構(gòu)成單詞。粘連語素主要出現(xiàn)在派生詞中。7. -ist“的實(shí)踐者”； -al表示“的，關(guān)于

40、的”， -ize表示使成為；-ation表示： “動(dòng)作”,“過程”， -ic與有關(guān)的8. Bound Morpheme includes two types粘連語素包括兩種，粘連詞根和詞綴。: (1) bound root(粘附詞根) +例子 (2)Affix(詞綴)(1) a bound root is that part of the word that carries the fundamental meaning just like a free root. Unlike a free root, it is a bound form and has to combine with o

41、ther morphemes to make words. 一個(gè)粘連詞根是詞中承擔(dān)基礎(chǔ)意義的部分，如同自由根詞。和自由根詞不同的是，他是一個(gè)粘連形式不得不與其他詞素組合來構(gòu)成單詞。In English, bound roots are either Latin or Greek. Although they are limited in number, their productive power is amazing. 在英語中，粘連詞根或者是拉丁語或者是希臘語。盡管它們數(shù)量有限，它們的生產(chǎn)力驚人。它們誕生了成千上萬的派生詞，在現(xiàn)代英語中。(2)Affixes are forms that

42、are attached to words or word elements to modify meaning or function.詞綴是附屬在單詞上或者單詞元素上以修改詞語意義和功能的結(jié)構(gòu)。9. Affixes can be put into two groups: 根據(jù)詞綴的功能，我們可以把它們分為“曲折詞綴”和“派生詞綴”。1)Inflectional affixes (屈折詞綴):affixes attached to the end of words to indicate grammatical relationships are inflectional,thus know

43、n as inflectional morphemes. 是附加在詞尾用來表示屈折關(guān)系，因此被稱為“屈折詞素”。2)Derivational affixes(派生詞綴): derivational affixes are affixes added to other morphemes to create new words. 派生詞綴是加在其他語素上建立新詞的詞綴。派生詞綴可以分為前綴和后綴。Prefixes come before the word and the suffixes after the word前綴出現(xiàn)在詞前，后綴出現(xiàn)在詞后。 10. A root is the basic

44、 form of a word which cannot be further analysed without total loss of identity. 詞根是一個(gè)詞的基礎(chǔ)形式不能在沒有喪失定義的前提下繼續(xù)分解. In terms of derivational and inflectional morphology, a ' root is that part of a wordform that remains when all inflectional and derivational affixes have been removed'. 根據(jù)派生和屈折語形學(xué)，

45、“一個(gè)詞根是詞語中去除所有屈折詞綴和派生詞綴都去除剩下的部分。11. A stem can be defined as a form to which affixes of any kind can be added. 詞干可以被定義為任何詞綴都能夠添加的形式。Chapter 4 Word-Formation II(構(gòu)詞法)1.The expansion of vocabulary in modern English depends chiefly on word-formation現(xiàn)代英語中詞匯的擴(kuò)張只要依靠構(gòu)詞法2. 構(gòu)詞法分類：affixation (30%-40%) 詞綴法（ 30 -

46、40 ）compounding (28%-30%) 復(fù)合法（ 28 -30 ）conversion (26%) 轉(zhuǎn)化法（ 26 ）shortening (8%-10%) 縮略法 （ 8 -10 ）blending and other means (1%-5%) 拼綴法和其他方法（ 1 -5% ）3. Affixation is generally defined as the formation of words by adding word-forming or derivational affixes to stems. This process is also known as deri

47、vation, for new words created in this way are derived from old forms. The words formed in this way are called derivatives. 詞綴法通常被認(rèn)為是通過添加詞形或者派生詞綴到詞干以構(gòu)成新詞的方法。這個(gè)過程也被稱作“派生”，因?yàn)橥ㄟ^這種方式創(chuàng)造的新詞是從舊詞派生而來。通過這種方式造出的詞叫做“派生詞”。4. affixation falls into two subclasses: prefixation and suffixation. 加詞綴法可以分成兩類：前加詞綴和后加詞綴。

48、（1）Prefixation is the formation of new words by adding prefixes to stems. Prefixes do not generally change the word-class of the stem but only modify its meaning. 前綴法通過給詞干加前綴來構(gòu)成新詞。前綴通常不改變詞干的詞類但是只改變它的意思。The majority of prefixes are characterized by their non-class-changing nature. Their chief functio

49、n is to change meanings of the stems. 前綴的大多數(shù)都以不改變詞類的特點(diǎn)為特征。它們的主要功能是改變詞干的意義。（2）Suffixation is the formation of new words by adding suffixes to stems. Unlike prefixes which primarily change the meaning of the stem, suffixes have only a small semantic role, their primary function being to change the gra

50、mmatical function of stems. 后綴法是通過添加后綴到詞干來構(gòu)成新詞的方法。不象前綴主要改變詞干的意思，后綴只有一個(gè)很小的意義作用，它們的主要作用是改變詞干的語法功能。we shall group suffixes on a grammatical basis into noun suffixes, verb suffixes, adjective suffixes我們可以根據(jù)語法基礎(chǔ)將后綴分為名詞后綴，動(dòng)詞后綴，形容詞后綴，等等后綴的類別Deverbal動(dòng)詞派生Denominal名詞派生 需要記5. Compounding, also called compositi

51、on, is the formation of new words by joining two or more stems. Words formed in this way are called compounds. 復(fù)合詞也叫組合詞，是通過連接兩個(gè)以上詞干構(gòu)成新詞的方式。通過這樣的方式構(gòu)成的詞叫復(fù)合詞。三個(gè)特征：（1）Phonetic features（exceptions：sociolinguistics，psycho-analysis）讀音特點(diǎn)。在復(fù)合詞中詞語中銀通常出現(xiàn)在第一個(gè)基本音上，然而在名詞短語中第二個(gè)基本音通常加重，如果只有一個(gè)重音的話。如果有兩個(gè)重音，復(fù)合詞第一個(gè)重音在第

52、一個(gè)基本音。第二個(gè)重音如果有，在第二個(gè)基本音上，自由詞組正相反。（2）Semantic features語意特征：a lot of compounds are transparent許多復(fù)合詞是意義明確的（3）Grammatical features法特征一個(gè)復(fù)合詞傾向于在句子中扮演一個(gè)獨(dú)立的語法角色，例如，動(dòng)詞，名詞，或者形容詞。6. Compounding can take place within any of the word classes, but the productive ones are nouns and adjectives followed by verbs to a

53、 much lesser extent復(fù)合適用于任何詞類，但是最具生產(chǎn)力的是名詞和形容詞后跟動(dòng)詞，這樣程度更小。7.Formation of compounds復(fù)合詞組成（1）Noun compounds（名詞）名詞性復(fù)合詞（2）Adjective compounds（形容詞）各11種需了解2.形容詞性復(fù)合詞（3）Verb compounds（conversion or backformation）動(dòng)詞復(fù)合詞動(dòng)詞復(fù)合詞不如其他兩種常見。有限的動(dòng)詞是通過反轉(zhuǎn)或逆序法來造詞。8.conversion（zero-derivation零派生）反轉(zhuǎn)Conversion is the formation

54、of new words by converting words of one class to another class. 轉(zhuǎn)換法是通過轉(zhuǎn)換詞類到另一詞類的構(gòu)成新詞方法Since the words do not change in morphological structure but in function, this process is also known as functional shift. 由于詞沒有改變形態(tài)但是改變了功能，這個(gè)過程被稱為“功能轉(zhuǎn)換”。Conversion is generally considered to be a derivational proce

55、ss whereby an item is adapted or converted to a new word class without the addition of an affix. Hence the name zero-derivation反轉(zhuǎn)通常被認(rèn)為是一個(gè)派生的過程，一個(gè)詞條被改變或者反轉(zhuǎn)成為新詞類，沒有添加詞綴。因此叫做“零派生”。Words produced by conversion are primarily nouns, adjectives, and verbs. 通過反轉(zhuǎn)產(chǎn)生的主要是名詞，形容詞和動(dòng)詞。conversion is not only a chang

56、e of grammatical function of the lexical item involved but with it the different range of meaning that it originally carried轉(zhuǎn)換不僅是詞條語法功能的轉(zhuǎn)換，而且因?yàn)檗D(zhuǎn)換出現(xiàn)不同的語意范圍，和原來承載的不同。9. In some cases, conversion is accompanied by certain changes which affect pronunciation or spelling or stress distribution. The most c

57、ommon changes are:（1）Voiceless to voiced consonant（2） Initial to end stress在某些情況下，反轉(zhuǎn)被增加一定的變化，這些變化會(huì)影響讀音或者拼寫或者重音的分布。最常見的變化是：+例子（1）不發(fā)音的輔音變成發(fā)音的輔音。（2）開始重音到結(jié)束重音。10. Blending is the formation of new words by combining parts of two words or a word plus a part of another word. Words formed in this way are ca

58、lled blends or pormanteau words. 混合詞是組合兩個(gè)詞的一部分或者一個(gè)詞加上另一詞的一部分來構(gòu)詞的方法。通過這種方式構(gòu)造的詞稱作“混合詞”或拼級(jí)詞。+例子1) head + tail 頭尾2) head + head 頭頭3) head + word 頭整詞4) word + tail 整詞尾11. Another common way of making a word is to shorten a longer word by cutting a part off the original and using what remains instead. This is called clipping另一種造詞的常見方式是縮短一個(gè)長詞，用減去原詞一部分，使用剩下部分的方法。這叫刪減。+例子1) Front clipping 前刪2) Back clipping 后刪3) Front and back clipping 前后刪4) Phrase clipping 刪短語12. Acronymy is the pro