英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)(共9頁(yè))

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上英語(yǔ)語(yǔ)言學(xué)一、語(yǔ)言的特點(diǎn)和功能（Features and Functions of Language）語(yǔ)言：Language is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication 1. Features of Language （言的特點(diǎn)）1) Productivity: language users can understand and create unlimited number of sentences with linguistic element. This is a res

2、ult of the dual structures of every language.多產(chǎn)性，即語(yǔ)言的使用者可以理解并創(chuàng)造無(wú)限數(shù)量的句子。2) Duality: Language is a system of two structures, ie., the structure of sounds and structure of meaning.二重性，指語(yǔ)言是聲音和意義雙重結(jié)構(gòu)組成的系統(tǒng)。3) Arbitrariness: the concepts represented by language and their corresponding audio symbols are in

3、an arbitrary relationship. 任意性，即語(yǔ)言所表達(dá)的概念與其相對(duì)應(yīng)的聲音符號(hào)間的關(guān)系是任意的。4) Displacement: We can use language to describe things that are not present, such as something in the past, the future, or things that does not even exist in reality, such as E.T.移位性，指我們用語(yǔ)言可以表達(dá)許多不在場(chǎng)的東西，比如外星人5) Cultural transmission: Though

4、endowed with the physiological basis for mastering a language, the human being is not inborn with the capability of language and has to be placed in a specific cultural environment so as to grasp a language. 文化傳遞性， 指語(yǔ)言是一種傳遞文化的方式6) Interchangeability:可交換性，即同一個(gè)語(yǔ)言共同體內(nèi)的成員可以傳遞、接收信息。7) Reflexivity:自反性，指人類(lèi)

5、的語(yǔ)言可以被用來(lái)描述語(yǔ)言本身，即“元語(yǔ)言”。2. Functions of Language語(yǔ)言的功能1) Informative: This is the main function of language. When people use language to communicate with each other their experience in the real world, record or describe the “content” of the reality, they are actually taking advantage of this function.信

6、息功能，即語(yǔ)言可以用來(lái)傳遞信息，在功能語(yǔ)言學(xué)中稱之為達(dá)意功能（ideational function）.2) Interpersonal: People establish and maintain their identity in the society by this function人際功能，指人們通過(guò)語(yǔ)言來(lái)建立、維持其社會(huì)地位。3) Performative: This is a function where by the language influences directly on the reality, such as the sentence of imprisonment

7、 by the judge, the naming of a certain ship and the curses as believed by the ancient people.施為功能，指人們通過(guò)語(yǔ)來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)讓他人完成某個(gè)人物的功能。此概念來(lái)自Austin和Searle，屬于語(yǔ)用學(xué)（Pragmatics）的范疇。4) Emotive: 感情功能，指語(yǔ)言可以改變聽(tīng)眾的感情。5) Phatic communion: This is function realized by those “Phatic language”, aiming at establishing a harmonious

8、 and intimate climate among people. 交感性談話，指人們使用特定的表達(dá)方式，如“你好”等來(lái)維持相互間的關(guān)系。6) Recreational：This function means that sometimes people may enjoy language for languages sake, i.e., not using language in any practical purposes, such as tongue-twisters and childish babbles.娛樂(lè)功能，指人們可以使用語(yǔ)言進(jìn)行娛樂(lè)活動(dòng)，如唱歌等。7) Metali

9、ngual：People may use language to talk about, explain or even change language itself. This is the metalingual function of language. 元語(yǔ)言功能，指人類(lèi)可以使用語(yǔ)言來(lái)談?wù)摗⒏淖冋Z(yǔ)言本身。二、Branches of Linguistics （語(yǔ)言學(xué)的主要分支）語(yǔ)言學(xué)就是對(duì)語(yǔ)言的科學(xué)研究。1. Internal Branches: Intra- disciplinary divisions （內(nèi)部分支）1) phonetics( 語(yǔ)音學(xué)): the study of sp

10、eech sounds (研究語(yǔ)音 );2) Phonology (音系學(xué)音位學(xué)): the study of the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables （研究音和音節(jié)的結(jié)構(gòu)、分布于和序列）;3) Morphology (形態(tài)學(xué)): the study of the minimal units of meaningmorphemes and word-formation processes, that is , the in

11、ternal organization of words (研究意義的最小單位語(yǔ)素合成詞過(guò)程，即單詞的內(nèi)部構(gòu)造 );4) Syntax (句法學(xué)): the study of principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences (研究造句的規(guī)則);5) Semantics (語(yǔ)義學(xué)): the study of how meaning is encoded in a language (研究意義如何在語(yǔ)言中編碼);6) Pragmatics (語(yǔ)用學(xué)) : the study of meaning in conte

12、xt (研究語(yǔ)境中的意義2. External Branches: inter- disciplinary divisions (外部分支：跨學(xué)科分支即宏觀語(yǔ)言學(xué)分支)1) Psycholinguistics (心理語(yǔ)言學(xué)): to study the interrelation of language and mind;2) Sociolinguistics (社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)): to study the characteristics of Language varieties, language functions and speakers as the three interact and

13、 change within a speech community;3) Anthropological Linguistics (人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言學(xué)): to study the emergence of language and the divergence of language over thousands of years;4) Computational Linguistics (計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)): to study the use of computers to process or produce human language.三、Phonetics語(yǔ)音學(xué)1. Sub-branches

14、of Phonetics(語(yǔ)音學(xué)分支)1) Articulatory Phonetics (發(fā)音語(yǔ)音學(xué)): the production of speech sounds;2) Acoustic phonetics(聲學(xué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)): the physical properties of speech sounds;3) Auditory phonetics (聽(tīng)覺(jué)語(yǔ)音學(xué)): the perceptive mechanism of speech sounds.2Groups of speech sounds語(yǔ)音分類(lèi)Consonants(輔音)Vowels（元音）四、Phonology音位學(xué)音位學(xué)與

15、語(yǔ)音學(xué)的區(qū)別：語(yǔ)音學(xué)著重于語(yǔ)音的自然屬性，主要關(guān)注所有語(yǔ)言中人可能發(fā)出的所有聲音，它是音位學(xué)研究的基礎(chǔ)；新位學(xué)則強(qiáng)調(diào)語(yǔ)音的社會(huì)功能，其對(duì)象是某一種語(yǔ)言中可以用來(lái)組合成詞句的那些語(yǔ)音1Phonemes and Allophones(音位和音位變體)1) Phoneme: a distinctive, abstract sound unit with a distinctive feature (在某一語(yǔ)言中具有區(qū)別意義的最小語(yǔ)音單位).2) Allophones: the variants of a phoneme.沒(méi)有區(qū)分表意單位作用的音段較音位變體。3) Contrastive distri

16、bution (對(duì)立分布): the typical to be found in Minima Pairs (最小語(yǔ)音對(duì)). A Minimal Pair refers to two words which differ from each other by only one distinctive sound (one Phoneme) and which also differ in meaning, for example, bear and pear.如pin和pen4) Complementary distribution (互補(bǔ)分布): allophones that are n

17、ot found in the same position (從不出現(xiàn)在相同環(huán)境中的音位變體, 入送氣的p(peak)決不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在s之后，而不送氣的p(speak)也決不會(huì)出現(xiàn)在詞首):5）Free variation (自由變體): If segments appear in the same position but the mutual substitution does not result in change of meaning, they are said to be in free variation (同一個(gè)詞由于某種原因發(fā)成了兩個(gè)音，這種差異可能來(lái)自方言或者習(xí)慣等).2.

18、Suprasegmental Features(超音段特征)The principle suprasegmental features are syllable, stress, tone and intonation.對(duì)于大于音段的語(yǔ)音單位（如音階、單詞和句子）的語(yǔ)音特征進(jìn)行的研究成為超音段音位學(xué)，超音段特征包括重音（stress),音長(zhǎng)（length)，音高（Pitch)和此三者共同作用的結(jié)果語(yǔ)調(diào)（Intonation）五、Morphology形態(tài)學(xué)1Morpheme(詞素)1）Morpheme: the smallest meaningful unit of language (最小的有

19、意義的語(yǔ)言單位).2) Free Morphemes(自由語(yǔ)素) and Bound Morphemes(粘著語(yǔ)素)l Morphemes constituting words by themselves are called free morphemes. They are roots (詞根) of words.l Morphemes always attached to free morphemes to form new words are called bound morphemes. They are affixes (詞綴) of words, which can be furt

20、her divided into Inflectional Affixes (曲折詞綴) and Derivational Affixes (派生詞綴).l Inflectional morphemes in modern English indicate case and number of nouns, tense and aspect of verbs, and degree of adjectives and adverbs.l Derivational morphemes are bound morphemes added to existing forms to construct

21、 new words.2. Word Formation(詞的形成)1） Derivation (派生): length +enàlengthen2） Compounding (復(fù)合): book + shelfàbookshelf3） Lexical change proper (特有的詞匯變化)l Invention(新創(chuàng)詞語(yǔ)): nylonl Blending (混成詞): transfer + resisteràtransistorl Abbreviation(縮寫(xiě)詞): abbreviationàad.l Acronym(首字母縮寫(xiě)詞): Wo

22、rld Trade Organizationà WTOl Back-formation(逆構(gòu)詞法): editoràeditl Borrowing (外來(lái)詞): Kung-fu4） Semantic change (語(yǔ)義變化)l Broadening(詞義擴(kuò)大): task tax imposedàa piece of workl Narrowing (詞義縮小):deer beastàa particular kind of animall Meaning shift(詞義轉(zhuǎn)移): bead prayeràthe prayer bead

23、24;small, Ball-shaped piece of glass, metal or wood六、Syntax句法學(xué)主要研究句子結(jié)構(gòu)以及詞、詞組和短語(yǔ)組成句子規(guī)則1. Traditional Grammar (傳統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法)1) In traditional grammar, a sentence is considered a sequence of words which are classified into parts of speech.2) sentences are analyzed in terms of grammatical functions of words: su

24、bjects, objects, verbs (predicates), predicative3) nouns: number, case, gender4) verbs: tense, aspect, voice5) agreement in number /person /gender2. Structural Grammar(結(jié)構(gòu)主義語(yǔ)法)1) it was founded by Saussure, who distinguishes the linguistic competence of the speaker and the actual phenomena or data of

25、 linguistics as Langue(語(yǔ)言) and Parole(言語(yǔ))2) Structural grammar arose out of an attempt to deviate from traditional grammar. It deals with the inter-relationships of different grammatical units. In the concern of structural grammar, words are not just independent grammatical units, but are inter-rela

26、ted to one another.3) Key concepts: Syntagmatic and Paradigmatic relations (組合關(guān)系和聚合關(guān)系), Structure and System(結(jié)構(gòu)與系統(tǒng)), Immediate constituents(直接成分), Endocentric and Exocentric constructions(向心結(jié)構(gòu)與離心結(jié)構(gòu)).3. Transformational-Generative(TG) Grammar (轉(zhuǎn)化生成語(yǔ)法)1) It was founded by Noam Chomsky, who believes th

27、at language is somewhat innateThe Innateness Hypothesis (天賦假說(shuō)) and that children are born with a Language Acquisition Device (語(yǔ)言習(xí)得機(jī)制), which consists of three elements: a hypothesis-maker(假設(shè)標(biāo)記), linguistic universal (語(yǔ)言普遍性) and an evaluation procedure (評(píng)估程序).2) Chomsky distinguishes a language users

28、 underlying knowledge about the system of rules and the actual use of language in concrete situation as Competence (語(yǔ)言能力) and Performance (語(yǔ)言運(yùn)用). TG Grammar takes the ideal speakers linguistic competence as the object of study.3) The Grammar has five stages of development: the Classical Theory, the

29、Standard Theory, the Extended Standard Theory, the Revised Extended Standard Theory and the Minimalist program.4. Systematic-Functional Grammar （系統(tǒng)功能與法)1) It was founded by M.A.K. Halliday and takes actual uses of language as the object of study.2) The Grammar has two components: Systematic Grammar

30、and Functional Grammar.2) Key concepts: Them and Rheme (主位和述位), Communicative Dynamism(交際動(dòng)力), the three meta-functions of languageIdeational function (達(dá)意功能), Interpersonal function (交際功能) and Textual function (文本功能)SummarySchoolsRepresentativesTheories and Concepts1. SaussureLanguage is a system of

31、signs.Structural Grammar2. ChomskyTransformational-Generative Grammar3. The Prague School/Synchronic linguistic studyLanguage is functionalFunctional Sentence Perspective (FSP)Theme and Rheme4. The London SchoolFirth HallidayThe object of linguistics is language in actual use.Systematic-Functional G

32、rammar5. American StructuralismBoas and Sapir BloomfieldSapir-Whorf HypothesisBehaviourism in Linguistics七、Semantics語(yǔ)義學(xué)Definition of Meaning1) G.-Leech and his 7 types of meaning: Conceptual meaning (概念意義), Connotative meaning (內(nèi)含意義), Social meaning (社會(huì)意義), Affective meaning (情感意義), Reflected meanin

33、g (反意義), Collocative meaning (搭配意義), Thematic meaning (主題意義).2) The conceptual view (概念主義觀點(diǎn)): semantic triangle (語(yǔ)義三角) by Ogden and RichardsSymbol or Form, Referent, and Thought or Reference.3) Contextualism (語(yǔ)境主義): to base meaning on context; a representative of the approach was J.R.Firth.4) Behavi

34、orism(行為主義): the meaning of a language form is the situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer; a supporter of the approach was Bloomfield, who was a principle representative of American Structuralism(美國(guó)結(jié)構(gòu)主義).5) Key Concepts: Lexical sense relations (詞匯含意關(guān)系

35、): Synonymy (同義關(guān)系), Polysemy (一詞多義);Homonymy (同音或同形異議關(guān)系): Hyponymy (上下義關(guān)系), Antonymy(反義關(guān)系).Sentential sense relations (語(yǔ)句含義關(guān)系): Tautology (同義反復(fù)句), Contradiction (自相矛盾句), Inconsistency (矛盾關(guān)系)，Synonymousness (同義關(guān)系), Entailment (衍推關(guān)系), Presuppostion (預(yù)設(shè)關(guān)系), semantically anomalousness(語(yǔ)義反常句).八、Pragmatics語(yǔ)用學(xué)1. Speech Act The