Updating the Definitions and Methods of Measuring Poverty更新測量貧困的定義和方法

1、Defining and Measuring Poverty: Challenges and OpportunitiesBy Jim Masters and Teresa Wickstrom, Center for Community FuturesDraft 9 (July 21, 2004)Table of ContentsA. TOC o 1-5 h z HYPERLINK l _Toc76281920 Project Overview PAGEREF _Toc76281920 h 1B. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281921 Dictionary Definitions o

2、f Poverty PAGEREF _Toc76281921 h 2C. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281922 United States Federal Definition of Poverty PAGEREF _Toc76281922 h 5D. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281923 How the Census Bureau Measures Poverty PAGEREF _Toc76281923 h 7 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281924 Poverty Research PAGEREF _Toc76281924 h 12E. HYPERLIN

3、K l _Toc76281925 State Income Levels Used in Tax Credit Programs.13F. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281926 United States Other Organizations PAGEREF _Toc76281926 h 18G. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281927 International Organizations. PAGEREF _Toc76281927 h 19H. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281928 Measuring Global Poverty PAGEREF _To

4、c76281928 h 20I. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281929 International Other Nations PAGEREF _Toc76281929 h 21 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281930 1. AFRICA PAGEREF _Toc76281930 h 21 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281931 2. CAMBODIA. PAGEREF _Toc76281931 h 21 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281932 3. CANADA PAGEREF _Toc76281932 h 21 HYPERLINK l _Toc76

5、281933 4. CHINA PAGEREF _Toc76281933 h 21 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281934 5. ENGLAND PAGEREF _Toc76281934 h 22 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281935 6. EUROPE PAGEREF _Toc76281935 h 22 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281936 7. FINLAND PAGEREF _Toc76281936 h 22 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281937 8. GERMANY PAGEREF _Toc76281937 h 24 HYPERLINK l

6、 _Toc76281938 10. SHANGHAI PAGEREF _Toc76281938 h 30 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281939 11. SOUTH AFRICA PAGEREF _Toc76281939 h 30 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281940 12. SPAIN PAGEREF _Toc76281940 h 31 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281941 13. SWEDEN PAGEREF _Toc76281941 h 31 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281942 14. RUSSIA PAGEREF _Toc76281942

7、 h 31 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281943 ALL PAGEREF _Toc76281943 h 31J. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281944 Comparing the Elements of the Different Approaches PAGEREF _Toc76281944 h 40K. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281945 Problems in the Existing U.S. Federal Definition of Poverty PAGEREF _Toc76281945 h 41L. Bibliography and HYP

8、ERLINK l _Toc76281948 Electronic documents PAGEREF _Toc76281948 h Error! Bookmark not defined.M. HYPERLINK l _Toc76281949 Stakeholders and Experts PAGEREF _Toc76281949 h 48 HYPERLINK l _Toc76281950 Appendix A. United Ways State of Caring Index PAGEREF _Toc76281950 h 51A. Project OverviewThis is a su

9、rvey of the definitions and measures of poverty in use by various organizations and governments around the world. This does not describe every single one of them because this paper would be hundreds of pages long. Instead it describes a few definitions and lists the sources for many more, and begins

10、 to compile some of the problems with the current situation. The purpose of this background material is to provide the source material to create a framework that shows the types of elements or factors that make up different definitions, e.g. income, assets, government benefits, social factors, etc.

11、We will also try to make explicit the underlying assumptions, which requires “unbundling the definitions in some cases.We recognize that most definitions are based on: a particular culture, on the values of the society or organization that create it, on the extent to which a definition is based on s

12、ocial science, religion, economics or some other discipline, and on the political compromises they reached to arrive at their definition. Unlike chemistry or astronomy or microeconomics, there is no standardized set of definitions to use as building blocks there is just whatever the promulgator uses

13、.We will then group the definitions according to the (a) underlying assumptions, or (b) major themes emphasized, or (c) clusters of similar factors. We will then seek to compare the definitions in terms of the factors that make them up, and create a construct that reflects the major themes. We are n

14、ot trying to judge them as being “right or “wrong and we are not trying to construct the perfect definition. Furthermore, this is not intended to be an exhaustive review; we are not trying to include every citation on this topic (there are thousands of them). We are trying to get enough of a picture

15、 that we can compare the apples and oranges and assess the utility of the different types of definitions with regard to the primary purpose of this overall project - to create a 21st century model.Virtually all the content material is from the publications and websites as cited, i.e. we have include

16、d items from the sources as written there. We did no editing of this source material. We just put it in. I think the benefit of this “web search approach are three-fold. First, this is what other people see when they do web searches. Secondly, it is a lot faster for us to do. Thirdly, you get hot li

17、nks to jump to other material. Initially I thought this paper was going to be about 10 pages, but as Teresa and I dug and dug we discovered far more sources than we had anticipated. I think in the final version it might be useful for me to put my comments in a different typeface.It will be useful to

18、 read this on a computer that is connected to the Internet so that as you come upon a source you want to look at further you can click on it. Happy clicking!B. Dictionary Definitions of Povertya). From Websters Dictionary (c/o HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /search :/dictionary.reference /search)

19、6/2004poverty n. The state of being poor; lack of the means of providing material needs or comforts. Deficiency in amount; scantiness: “the poverty of feeling that reduced her soul (Scott Turow). Unproductiveness; infertility: the poverty of the soil. Renunciation made by a member of a religious ord

20、er of the right to own property. b). HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /go/ :/ merriam-webster /premium/dcom/ Merriam-Webster Unabridged. HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /search?q=00-database-info&db=web1913 o Click for more information about this dictionary Source: Websters Revised Unabridged Dicti

21、onary, 1996, 1998 MICRA, Inc. The quality or state of being poor or indigent; want or scarcity of means of subsistence; indigence; need. “Swathed in numblest poverty. -Keble.Any deficiency of elements or resources that are needed or desired, or that constitute richness; as, poverty of soil; poverty

22、of the blood; poverty of ideas.Synonyms: Indigence; penury; beggary; need; lack; want; scantiness; sparingness; meagerness; jejuneness.Usage: HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /search?q=poverty o Look up Poverty Poverty, HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /search?q=indigence o Look up Indigence Indigen

23、ce, HYPERLINK :/dictionary.reference /search?q=pauperism o Look up Pauperism Pauperism. Poverty is a relative term; what is poverty to a monarch, would be competence for a day laborer. Indigence implies extreme distress, and almost absolute destitution. Pauperism denotes entire dependence upon publi

24、c charity, and, therefore, often a hopeless and degraded state.c) And a 2000 update on definitions from the Institute for Research on Poverty is available at HYPERLINK :/ /irp/faqs/faq7.htm :/ /irp/faqs/faq7.htmd) HYPERLINK :/ wikipedia wikipedia The free, open-source resourcePoverty is a subjective

25、 and comparative term describing a lack of sufficient HYPERLINK :/wiki/Wealth o Wealth wealth (usually understood as HYPERLINK :/wiki/Capital_%28economics%29 o Capital (economics) capital, HYPERLINK :/wiki/Money o Money money, material goods, or HYPERLINK :/wiki/Resources o Resources resources espec

26、ially HYPERLINK :/wiki/Natural_resources o Natural resources natural resources) to live what is understood in a HYPERLINK :/wiki/Society o Society society as a normal life: for instance, to be capable of raising a healthy family, and especially educating children and participating in HYPERLINK :/wik

27、i/Society o Society society. A person living in this condition of poverty is said to be poor. The meaning of sufficient varies widely across the different HYPERLINK :/wiki/Politics o Politics political and HYPERLINK :/wiki/Economics o Economics economic areas of the world.d) HYPERLINK :/ wikipedia w

28、ikipedia (more)Poverty is essentially the collective condition of poor people, or of poor groups, and in this sense entire HYPERLINK :/wiki/Nation o Nation nation-states are sometimes regarded as poor. To avoid stigma these are usually called HYPERLINK :/wiki/Developing_nation o Developing nation de

29、veloping nations.Poverty is often strongly correlated with social problems, such as HYPERLINK :/wiki/Crime o Crime crime and HYPERLINK :/wiki/Disease o Disease disease (notably HYPERLINK :/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease o Sexually transmitted disease sexually transmitted diseases), sometimes in e

30、pidemic form. As a result, many societies employ HYPERLINK :/wiki/Social_worker o Social worker social workers to fight poverty by a variety of methods which range from HYPERLINK :/wiki/Moral o Moral moral persuasion to financial HYPERLINK :/wiki/Subsidy o Subsidy subsidy to physical coercion.There

31、is evidence of poverty in every region. In developed countries, this condition results in wandering HYPERLINK :/wiki/Homelessness o Homelessness homeless people and poor suburbs (with so-called HYPERLINK :/wiki/Bidonville o Bidonville bidonvilles or HYPERLINK :/wiki/Favela o Favela favelas) in which

32、 poor people are - more or less - restricted to a HYPERLINK :/wiki/Ghetto o Ghetto ghetto.The condition in itself is not always considered negatively, even if this is the prevalent interpretation: some cultural or religious groups consider poverty an ideal condition to live in, a condition necessary

33、 in order to reach certain spiritual or intellectual states. A notable example is that of the Christian HYPERLINK :/wiki/Franciscans o Franciscans Franciscan order. This is called HYPERLINK :/wiki/Voluntary_simplicity o Voluntary simplicity voluntary simplicity, of which HYPERLINK :/w/wiki.phtml?tit

34、le=Voluntary_poverty&action=edit o Voluntary poverty voluntary poverty is an extreme form.Poverty is studied by many social, scientific and cultural disciplines.In HYPERLINK :/wiki/Economics o Economics economics, two kinds of poverty are considered: HYPERLINK :/wiki/Relative_poverty o Relative pove

35、rty relative and HYPERLINK :/wiki/Absolute_poverty o Absolute poverty absolute. In HYPERLINK :/wiki/Politics o Politics politics, the fight against poverty is usually regarded as a social goal and most governments have - secondarily at least - some dedicated institutions or departments. The work don

36、e by these bodies is mostly limited to HYPERLINK :/wiki/Census o Census census studies and identification of some income level below which a citizen is technically considered poor. Active interventions may include housing plans, social HYPERLINK :/wiki/Pension o Pension pensions, special job opportu

37、nities, or requirements. Some ideologies (such as HYPERLINK :/wiki/Marxism o Marxism Marxism) argue that the economists and politicians actively work to create poverty. Other theories consider poverty a sign of a failing economic system and one of the main causes of HYPERLINK :/wiki/Crime o Crime cr

38、ime. In HYPERLINK :/wiki/Law o Law law, poverty is recognised, in most developed countries, as a mitigating factor for the determination of the punishment, being usually considered coincident with a generic and permanent state of need which can affect and alter the correct capability of clearly or f

39、reely identifying the legally and socially acceptable behaviour. Poverty is generally argued to cause increased HYPERLINK :/wiki/Crime o Crime crime rates amongst the poor by increasing their HYPERLINK :/wiki/Stress_%28psychology%29 o Stress (psychology) stress. In HYPERLINK :/wiki/Education o Educa

40、tion education, poverty affects a students ability to effectively profit from the learning environments. Especially for younger students coming from poverty, their primary needs as described in HYPERLINK :/wiki/Maslow%27s_Hierarchy_of_Needs o Maslows Hierarchy of Needs Maslows Hierarchy of Needs; th

41、e need for a safe and stable homes, clothes on their backs, and regular meals clouds a students ability to learn. Furthermore, in education circles there is a term used to characterize the phenomenon of the rich getting richer and the poorer gettingd) HYPERLINK :/ wikipedia wikipedia (more) poorer (

42、as it relates to education but easily transfers to poverty in general) is the HYPERLINK :/wiki/The_Matthew_Effect o The Matthew Effect Matthew Effect. Related debates on a states HYPERLINK :/wiki/Human_capital o Human capital human capital and a persons HYPERLINK :/wiki/Individual_capital o Individu

43、al capital individual capital tend likewise to focus on access to the HYPERLINK :/wiki/Instructional_capital o Instructional capital instructional capital and HYPERLINK :/wiki/Social_capital o Social capital social capital available only to those educated in such formal systems.Causes of PovertyPove

44、rty is a highly HYPERLINK :/wiki/Political o Political political issue. People with HYPERLINK :/wiki/Right_wing o Right wing right wing views often see it as related to HYPERLINK :/wiki/Lazy o Lazy laziness, and a lack of HYPERLINK :/wiki/Family_planning o Family planning Family planning. People wit

45、h HYPERLINK :/wiki/Left_wing o Left wing left wing views see it more in terms of HYPERLINK :/wiki/Social_Justice o Social Justice Social Justice and lack of opportunity in HYPERLINK :/wiki/Education o Education Education. It is a highly complex issue in which various factors often play a part.Elimin

46、ating PovertyMany societies at various times have tried to eliminate poverty, through numerous measures including HYPERLINK :/wiki/Education o Education education, HYPERLINK :/wiki/Industrialization o Industrialization industrialization, and through forms of HYPERLINK :/wiki/Social_welfare o Social

47、welfare social welfare. A true solution has remained elusive.See also: HYPERLINK :/wiki/Poverty_pimp o Poverty pimp Poverty pimp , HYPERLINK :/wiki/Poverty_line o Poverty line Poverty line HYPERLINK :/wiki/Giffen_good o Giffen good Giffen good HYPERLINK :/wiki/Pauper%27s_oath o Paupers oath Paupers

48、oath . HYPERLINK :/w/wiki.phtml?title=Poverty&action=edit§ion=4 o Poverty editExternal links: HYPERLINK :/ /2003-5/poverty.htm o :/ /2003-5/poverty.htm Poverty, Racism and Literacy. ERIC Digest ( :/ /2003-5/poverty.htm) HYPERLINK :/ /1993/poverty.htm o :/ /1993/poverty.htm Poverty and Learning.

49、ERIC Digest ( :/ /1993/poverty.htm) C. United States Government Definition of PovertyFor the current poverty guidelines, see: HYPERLINK :/poverty/04poverty.shtml :/poverty/04poverty.shtmlNote: The following is from the Department of Health and Human Services, illustrating the differences between pov

50、erty thresholds and poverty guidelines. We include their examples of years used to illustrate these concepts.1. THE HHS POVERTY GUIDELINES:. One Version of the U.S. Federal Poverty Measure (from HYPERLINK :/ mindfood /sustainable/fedpovertyguidelines.html :/ mindfood /sustainable/fedpovertyguideline

51、s.htmlThere are two slightly different versions of the federal poverty measure: the poverty thresholds; and the poverty guidelines. The poverty thresholds are the original version of the federal poverty measure. They are updated each year by the Census Bureau (although they were originally developed

52、 by Mollie Orshansky of the Social Security Administration). The thresholds are used mainly for statistical purposes-for instance, preparing estimates of the number of Americans in poverty each year.The poverty guidelines are the other version of the federal poverty measure. They are issued each yea

53、r in the Federal Register by the Department of Health and Human Services (HHS). The guidelines are a simplification of the poverty thresholds for administrative purposes-for instance, determining financial eligibility for certain federal programs. (The full text of the Federal Register notice with t

54、he 1996 guidelines is HYPERLINK :/ mindfood /sustainable/poverty1996.html available here.)Programs using the guidelines (or percentage multiples of the guidelines-for instance, 130 percent of the guidelines) in determining eligibility include Head Start, the Food Stamp Program, the National School L

55、unch Program, and the Low-Income Home Energy Assistance Program. Note that in general, public assistance programs (Aid to Families with Dependent Children and Supplemental Security Income) do NOT use the poverty guidelines in determining eligibility.The poverty guidelines (unlike the poverty thresho

56、lds) are designated by the year in which they are issued. For instance, the guidelines issued in March 1996 are designated as the 1996 poverty guidelines. However, the 1996 HHS poverty guidelines only reflect price changes through calendar year 1995; accordingly, they are approximately equal to the

57、Census Bureau poverty thresholds for calendar year 1995. (The 1995 thresholds should be issued in final form in September or October 1996; a preliminary version of the 1995 thresholds is available now from the Census Bureau.)The poverty guidelines are sometimes loosely referred to as the federal pov

58、erty level, but that term is ambiguous, and should be avoided in situations, (e.g., legislative or administrative) where precision is important. For information about how the poverty guidelines are used in a particular program, contact the federal (or other) office which is responsible for that prog

59、ram.For general information about the poverty guidelines (but NOT for information about how they are used in a particular program), see Gordon M. Fisher, Poverty Guidelines for 1992 a background paper on the poverty guidelines, Social Security Bulletin, Vol. 55, No. 1, Spring 1992, pp. 43-46; or contact Gordon Fisher, Office of the Assistant Secretary for Planning and Evaluation, Room 438F, Humphrey Building, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 200 Independence Avenue, S.W., Washington, D.C. 20211-telephone: (202)690-6141; interne