語言學(xué)概論英文課件：Chapter 5 Semantics

1、Chapter FiveSemantics1Key points in the chapter1) What is meaning?2) Different types of meaning3) The Theory of Reference/ Referential Theory4) Sense& reference5) Sense relations (Synonymy, Antonymy, Hyponymy)6）Componential Analysis2Period 11. The Study of MeaningMeaning can be studied from differen

2、t perspectives:Lexical semantics is the study of the meaning of words.The meaning of sentences is also called Propositional meaning命題意義, compositional meaning成分意義.The study of the meaning of utterances is called Pragmatics.32. Semantic MeaningSemantics is the study of meaning in language.Meaning has

3、 been studied for thousands of years by philosophers, logicians and linguists, such as, Plato, Lao Zi and Aristotle, etc.4Logicians and philosophers have tended to concentrate on a restricted range of sentences (typically, statements, or propositions) within a single language.The linguistic approach

4、 is broader in scope, aiming to study the properties of meaning in a systematic and objective way, with reference to as wide a range of languages as possible.53. The meaning of meaningC. K. Ogden & I. A. Richards (1923). The Meaning of Meaning.They have given a list of 22 definitions of the word “me

5、aning”. What is meaning?-The thing or idea that a sound, word, sign etc. representsE.g. 1) A green light means to go.meanto be a sign or indication of62) Health means everything.meanto convey or indicateHis look was full of meaning.Meaningsth. that is signified7What is the meaning of life?8Discussio

6、n What is the meaning of life to you?Students:?Teachers:-teaching-publications-housing-childrens education9What does capitalist mean to you?10Geoffrey Leech (1974, 1981) recognizes 7 types of meaning in his Semantics: The Study of Meaning. Seven types of meaning:Conceptual meaningConnotative meaning

7、Social meaningAffective meaningReflected meaningCollocative meaningThematic meaningAssociativeMeaning11(1) Conceptual meaningIt is also called denotative 表示的 or cognitive meaning.It concerned with the relationship between a word and the thing it denotes, or refers to.12Usually conceptual meaning can

8、 be studied in terms of contrastive features or a binary feature format.E.g. women: +HUMAN+ADULT+FEMALEGIRL: +HUMAN-ADULT+FEMALE13(2) Connotative meaning(內(nèi)涵意義）Connotative meaning: What is communicated by virtue of what language refers to. E.g. grin, beam, smile and smirkThey are all types of smile.

9、This is because their conceptual meanings overlap. The real differences between them lie in their connotative meanings. 14 It involves the real world experience one associates with an expression when one uses or hears it.1516Step mother17(3) Social meaningWhat is communicated by virtue of what langu

10、age refers to. It chiefly includes stylistic meaning of an utterance. Steed, horse, nag, gee-geeThey have the same conceptual meaning. But they belong to different contexts of use.steed: poetichorse: generalnag: old-fashioned gee-gee: informal 馬兒18domicile: very formal, official住處E.g. Buckingham Pal

11、ace residence: formalabode: formal or humorousE.g. You are most welcome to my humble abode. 竭誠歡迎光臨寒舍。home: general19The five clocks by Martin JoosFrozen Formal Consultative Casual IntimateFormal InformalThey indicate the degree of formality of language expressions.20(4) Affective meaningIt reflects

12、the personal feelings of the speaker, including his attitude to the listener, or his attitude to something he is talking about.Im terribly sorry to interrupt, but I wonder if you would be so kind as to lower your voices a little. Could you lower your voice?21Colorful meaningCommendatory tough-minded

13、resolute, firmshrewdchildlikeWise manman of usual talentportly, stout, plumslender, slimDerogatory ruthlessobstinatesly, craftychildishWise guyfreakfleshy, fat, tubbylean, skinny, lanky, weedy, scraggy22(5) Reflected meaningWhat is communicated through association with another sense of the same expr

14、ession.E.g. 1） 40 years ago: Human language is a tool of social intercourse.Nowadays: Human language is a tool of social communication.Many taboo terms are the result of this.Can you think of some other taboo terms?23(6) Collocative meaningWhat is communicated through association with words which te

15、nd to occur in the environment of another word.Pretty always collocates with girl, woman, flower, garden, color, etc.Handsome always collocates with boy, man, car, vessel, airliner, etc.24(7) Thematic meaningWhat is communicated by the way in which a speaker or writer organizes the message, in terms

16、 of ordering, focus, and emphasis.Mrs Bessie Smith donated the first prize.The first prize was donated by Mrs Bessie Smith.They stopped at the end of the corridor.At the end of the corridor, they stopped.25Period 2Referential Theory (P107-109)Conceptualism or mentalism (概念主義心理主義) or referential theo

17、ry (P107-109)This conceptualist view has been held by some philosophers and linguists from ancient times . The theory of meaning which relates the meaning of a word to the thing it refers to, or stands for, is known as the Referential Theory.把詞語意義跟它所指或代表的事物聯(lián)系起來的理論叫指稱論。詞和事物之間沒有直接關(guān)系，它們是以concept(概念）為中介

18、的。 264. The Theory of Referenceconcept (word) (object)27airplane28What is concept?There is something behind the concrete thing that we see with our eyes (to see sth. in the minds eye). And that something is abstract, which has no existence in the material world and can only be sensed in our minds. T

19、his abstract thing is usually called concept. 295. SenseWhat does sense mean?Sense may refer to the properties an entity has. In this usage, “sense” is equivalent to “concept”.Reference: Reference deals with the relationship between the linguistic elements (words, sentences, etc.) and the non-lingui

20、stic world of experience, e.g. things, events, and qualities. 30Sense &referenceFrege: 分析哲學(xué)、語言哲學(xué)、現(xiàn)代數(shù)理邏輯之父區(qū)分意義和指稱是其對語言哲學(xué)所做的重要貢獻(xiàn)。Frege distinguished sense and reference in his article: Uber Sinn und Bedeutung(On Sense and Reference)The morning star & the evening star（它們指同一個行星-金星)弗雷格的結(jié)論：“啟明星”和 “長庚星”指稱（

21、reference) 相同但是意義(sense) 不同。E.g. 他天沒亮就起身，迎著啟明星向東走去。31senseDistinction between sense and reference:1) So the distinction between sense and reference is comparable to that between “connotation”(內(nèi)涵） and “denotation”（外延）. The former refers to abstract properties of an entity, while the latter refers to

22、the concrete entities having these properties. Sense指一個實(shí)體的抽象屬性，reference指擁有這些屬性的具體實(shí)體。概念的內(nèi)涵是指反映在概念中的事物特性和本質(zhì)，概念的外延是指反映在概念中的一個個、一類類的事物。32sense2) There is another difference between sense and reference. To some extent, we can say every word has a sense, i.e. some conceptual content. But not every word h

23、as a reference.E.g. content words tend to have senses.E.g. table, glass, window, etc. Function words like but, if, dont have references. 336. Sense RelationsSynonymyAntonymyHyponymyGradableComplementaryConverse346.1 SynonymySynonymy (sameness relation) refers to the sameness or close similarity of m

24、eaning. Words that are close in meaning are called synonyms.356.1 SynonymyE.g. buy/purchasethrifty/economical/stingyIm thrifty, You are economical and he is stingy.autumn/fallflat/apartmenttube/underground366.1 SynonymyAbsolute/complete synonyms are words which are identical in meaning in all its as

25、pects. Synonyms of this type are interchangeable in every way. They are very rare. E.g. taro/dasheen芋頭, milk sugar/lactose乳糖, compounding/composition復(fù)合構(gòu)詞法, fricative/spirant擦音, malnutrition/undernourishment,青霉素/配尼西林，自行車/腳踏車37Types of Synonyms(1) Dialectal synonyms - synonyms used in different region

26、al dialects. These are words with more or less the same meaning used in different regional dialects. British English and American English are the two major geographical varieties of the English language. British English American Englishautumn falllift elevatorluggage baggagelorry truckpetrol gasolin

27、eflat apartmentwindscreen windshieldtorch flashlight38Types of Synonyms(2) Stylistic synonyms - synonyms differing in style. Words having the same meaning may differ in style, or degree of formality. In other words, some words tend to be more formal, others casual, and still others neutral in style.

28、 39E.g. old man, daddy, dad, father, male parent; start, begin, commence (formal); E.g. Should we commence the attack?kid, child, offspring; kick the bucket, die, pass away, decease (formal)? 40Types of Synonyms(3) Emotive or evaluative synonymsThese are words that bear the same meaning but express

29、different emotions of the user, indicating the attitude or bias of the user toward what he is talking about. E.g. collaborator and accomplice are synonymous in that they share the meaning of a person who helps another, but they differ in that a collaborator helps another in doing something good, whi

30、le an accomplice helps another in a criminal act. 41Types of SynonymsE.g. amaze and astoundWhat is the difference between the two words?. 42The two words amaze and astound are very close in meaning to the word surprise, but have very subtle differences. While amaze suggests confusion and bewildermen

31、t, astound suggests difficulty in believing.43AntonymyAntonymy is the name for oppositeness relation. Words that are opposite are antonyms.There are three sub-types of antonymy:Gradable antonymy, complementary antonymy and converse antonymy446.2 Gradable antonymy good badlong shortbig smallFeatures:

32、Can be modified by adverbs of degree like very.Can have comparative forms.Can be asked with how.Gradable degrees: Coldcool-lukewarmwarm-hot456.3 Complementary antonymyalive : deadmale : femalepresent : absentinnocent : guiltyodd : evenpass : fail (a test)boy : girlhit : miss (a target)46Complementar

33、y antonymyFeatures:-They are non-gradable. -The adjectives of this types cannot be used for comparative degrees. -And they dont allow adverbs of intensity like very to modify them.-Not only the assertion of one means the denial of the other, the denial of one also means the assertion of the other. v

34、ery alive半死不活：half-dead? more dead than alive476.4 Converse antonymybuy : selllend : borrowgive : receiveparent : childhusband : wifeteacher : studentabove : belowbefore : afterhost : guestemployer : employee486.4 Converse antonymyFeatures:-One presupposes the other.If there is a buyer, there must b

35、e a seller.If there is a parent, there must be a child.-This type of antonomy is typically found in reciprocal 相互的social roles, kinship relations, temporal and spatial relations. 49Marked and unmarkedThere are marked and unmarked members in some antonymous pairs. The unmarked member is used much mor

36、e widely as a contrast with the marked one, which is more specific in denotation. 50Marked and unmarkedtiger tigresshost hostessprince princessold youngbig smallwide narrowheavy light51Marked and unmarkedThe cover term=unmarked=usual無標(biāo)記的The covered term=marked=unusual標(biāo)記的If the covered term is used,

37、then it suggests that there is something odd, unusual here. 52E.g. “There is a tiger in the cage.”“How old is the baby?” “How big/wide/heavy is it?”The marked member always carries a certain implication of distinctiveness. The unmarked member is one which carries no particular implication at all. Ho

38、w young are you?How small is the house?53Use of Antonyms1. Idioms: First, midst and last, 徹頭徹尾fore and aft, 縱向的to play fast and loose, 反復(fù)無常through fair and foul 在任何情況下More haste, less speed Hope for the best and prepare for the worstSweet as honey, bitter as gallArt is long, life is short.54Use of A

39、ntonyms2. Antithesis（對照，對立）: a contrast of ideas expressed by placing antonyms in parallel positions in a sentence or in two or more continuous sentences for stylistic purposes.55Dickens: A Tale of Two Cities“It was the best of times, it was the worst of times, it was the age of wisdom, it was the a

40、ge of foolishness, it was the epoch of belief, it was the epoch of incredulity, it was the season of light, it was the season of darkness, it was the spring of hope, it was the winter of despair, we had everything before us, we had nothing before us”566.5 Hyponymy (inclusiveness relation)It deals wi

41、th the relationship of semantic inclusion. In other words, the meaning of a more specific word is included in that of another more general word. (Lyons 1977, Jackson 1988)A is included in / a kind of B.Cf.: chair and furniture, rose and flowerThe upper term is called superordinate;The lower terms, t

42、he members are called hyponymsThe members of the same class are called co-hyponyms.57SuperordinateHyponym 1Hyponym 2Hyponym 35859(1) In reading comprehension, coherence by hyponymy is an important key.E.g. Their was a fine rocking-chair that his father used to sit in, a desk where he wrote letters,

43、a nest of small tables and a dark, imposing bookcase. Now all this furniture was to be sold, and with it his own past. 60(2) In langauge production, knowing the semantic features of the hyponyms and their superordinates can help us achieve vividness, exactness, and concreteness. E.g. Trees surround

44、the water near our summer place.Old elms surround the lake near our summer cabin.61Exercise 1Do exercise 4 on page 11. 62Exercise 2Classify the following pairs into one of the opposite relations: complimentary antonyms, gradable antonyms, or converse. Explain your decisions.a. Genuine-fake b. ascend

45、-descend c. sick-healthy d. friend-enemye. Polite-rude f. give-takeg. Black-white h. approve-disapprovei. Husband-wife j. expensive-cheapk. Expand-contract l. beneficial-harmful 63keya. complementary b. converse,c. gradable d. gradablee. gradable f. converseg. converse (as in color system)h. complem

46、entary i. conversej. gradable l. gradable64Period 37. Componential Analysis (a way to analyze lexical meaning)Componential analysis provides an insight into the meaning of words and a way to study the relationships between words that are related in meaning.Plus and minus signs are used to indicate w

47、hether a certain semantic feature is present or absent in the meaning of a word, and these feature symbols are usually written in capitalized letters. 657. Componential AnalysisHUMANman (ADULT, MALE)woman (ADULT, FEMALE)boy (NON-ADULT, MALE)girl (NON-ADULT, FEMALE)66Semantic features/semantic compon

48、entsSemantic features/semantic components: semantic units smaller than the meaning of a words.67E.g. man +HUMAN, +ADULT,+MALEThis is parallel to the way a phoneme is analyzed into smaller components called distinctive features./b/ +PLOSIVE,+BILABIAL,+VOICED/P/ +PLOSIVE,+BILABIAL,-VOICED68Why doing c

49、omponential analysis? It is claimed that by showing the semantic components of a word in this way, we may better account for sense relations.Two words having the same semantic components will be synonymous with each other.E.g. bachelor & unmarried manThe same semantic components: HUMAN, ADULT, MALE

50、and UNMARRIED69Problems with the analysis1. Many words are polysemous.E.g. manSemantic component: MALEBut in:Man is mortal. (It refers to both sexes.)2. Binary taxonomies are not always the same.Boy and man & girl and woman (p.103.)70Discuss what makes the following funny.1. Most doctors are patient

51、 people.2. Education kills by degrees.3. a. Do you like my company?b. Well, I dont know. Which company do you work for?71Degree:1. the level or amount, esp. of ability or progress2. a titleCompany:1. Friendship from people with whom you spend time2. an organization of people who work together in bus

52、iness or trade72Problems with the analysis3. There may be words whose semantic components are difficult to ascertain.Human, adult and male are not ordinary words of English. They belong to meta-language, a language used to describe language. 738.1 Sentence meaningCompositionality or An integrated th

53、eoryThe idea that the meaning of a sentence depends on the meanings of the constituent words and the way they are combined is known as the The principle of Compositionality. 74The basic ideaIt consists of two parts: a dictionary and a set of project rules.The dictionary provides the grammatical classification and semantic information