兼職工作外文文獻(xiàn)翻譯中英文最新

1、兼職工作外文翻譯中英文最新英文Part-time employment and worker health in the United StatesYoung ChoAbstractA growing body of research has highlighted the consequences of part-timeemployment for workers health and well-being. However, these studies have yieldedinconsistent results and relied on cross-sectional data.

2、 In addition, relatively littleempirical research has explored whether the effect of working part-time on healthvaries by gender, particularly in the United States. Using longitudinal data from threewaves of the General Social Survey panel (201020122014), our study examined theassociation between pa

3、rt-time employment and perceived health among U.Semployees, and whether this association varied by gender. The results showed thatpart-time workers were less likely to report poor self-rated health than full-timeworkers, especially among males. The pattern of results was consistent acrossempirical a

4、pproachesincluding generalized estimating equations and random effectsmodels, with an extensive set of covariates. Taken together, these findings suggest thatfor U.S. employees, working part-time appears to be beneficial or at least notdetrimental to perceived health, which warrants further investig

5、ation.Keywords：Part-time employment， Self-rated health， American workers，General Social Survey panel， Gender differencesIntroductionIn most industrialized countries, the prevalence of part-time employment hassignificantly increased over the last few decades. According to the recent datafrom Organisa

6、tion for Economic Co-operation and Development (2016), the averageprevalence of working part-time employment in all OECD countries was 16.7% in2014, ranging from the highest in the Netherlands (38.5%) to the lowest in RussianFederation (4.0%). Although nationally representative data for part-time em

7、ploymentare scarce in Asia, this region has also seen a slight increase in part-time workJapan1from 18.3% to 22.7% and South Korea from 9.0% to 10.5% between 2005 and 2014(OECD, 2016). In the United States, data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS)showed that the percentage of workers engaged i

8、n part-time employment wasapproximately 18.5% in May 2016 (BLS, 2016a). The prevalence in the U.S. was13.5% in 1968, and peaked at 20.1% in early 2010 (BLS, 2016a).The high prevalence of part-time employment has raised concerns regarding itsconsequences for workers health. In recent years, a growing

9、 number of studies haveexplored the relationship between part-time employment and employees health andwell-being. These studies, however, have yielded inconsistent findings, with somesuggesting positive effects of working part-time (Beham, Prg, & Drobni,2012; Booth & van Ours, 2013; Buehler & Obrien

10、, 2011; Olsen & Dahl,2010) ornegative effects (Burr, Rauch, Rose, Tisch, & Tophoven, 2015; Oishi, Chan, Wang, &Kim, 2015), while others have found no difference between part- and full-timeworkers (Rodriguez, 2002, Bardasi and Francesconi, 2004). Furthermore, althoughsome studies have suggested that

11、the effects of part-time employment on health mayvary between female and male part-time workers, no clear pattern has emerged(Bartoll, Cortes, & Artazcoz, 2014; Beham et al., 2012). Also, most recent research onthe consequences of part-time employment for health and well-being has beenconducted in E

12、uropean (Bardasi and Francesconi, 2004, Bartoll et al., 2014, Beham etal., 2012, Booth and van Ours, 2013, Olsen and Dahl, 2010, Rodriguez, 2002) orAsian countries (Oishi et al., 2015), but relatively little is known about U.S. part-timeworkers health. Lastly, despite a growing number of studies in

13、this area, mostevidence is based on cross-sectional data, which may limit causal inference (Bartoll etal., 2014, Beham et al., 2012, Bu ehler and OBrien, 2011, Burr et al., 2015; Higgins,Duxbury, & Johnson, 2000; Oishi et al., 2015, Olsen and Dahl, 2010).This study adds to the existing literature by

14、 examining the effects of part-timework on self-rated health using data from the General Social Survey (GSS) panel. Thelongitudinal nature of the GSS provides an opportunity to explore the relationshipbetween part-time work and health status over time in a sample of U.S. adults. Datafrom 2010 to 201

15、4 are used to obtain a more accurate picture of current patterns and2produce findings relevant to the U.S. workforce. Exploring gender differences is alsoof interest, especially given that very little research has been done in the U.S. toexamine the potential gendered effects that part-time employme

16、nt may have on healthoutcomes (Bartoll et al., 2014, Beham et al., 2012). Accordingly, the purpose of thisstudy is to understand the potentially complex relationship between part-timeemployment and health status as well as gender differences in the relationship over afour-year period.In order to add

17、ress the purpose, two primary research questions are explored inthis study. First, among U.S. workers, how is part-time employment associated withworkers health status? Second, are there gender differences in the relationshipbetween part-time employment and heath among U.S. workers? Given the largen

18、umber of employees working part-time and the importance of health for workersand their families well-being, examining the potential consequences of part-timeemployment for employees health may shed light on the degree to which part -timeemployment affects American workers (Kleiner & Pavalko, 2010; K

19、leiner, Schunck,& Schmann, 2015; Valletta and Bengali, 2013, Virtanen et al., 2005). It also providespolicymakers and researchers with a longitudinal perspective of the relationshipbetween part-time work and health status as well as underlying gender differences.Definition of part-time employmentPar

20、t-time employment usually refers to “A job in which the usual number ofhours worked per week is below a specified threshold.” ( Borowczyk-Martins & Lal,2016, p. 7). For example, OECD (2016) uses less than 30 h per week as a thresholdfor part-time employment, while the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

21、 (BLS,2016a, BLS, 2016b) uses 35 h per week as a cut-point. Additionally, previous studieshave used different thresholds (e.g., weekly work hours 30, 32, 35, or 40 h) indefining part-time employment, which may entail some degree of arbitrariness of thecut-off (Bardasi & Francesconi, 2004; Beham et a

22、l., 2012; Booth & van Ours, 2013;Buehler & Obrien, 2011;Burr et al., 2015; Oishi et al., 2015). Also, some studieshave used a continuous measure of weekly work hours rather than classifying theminto categories (Datar, Nicosia, & Shier, 2014; Ziol-Guest, Dunifon, & Kalil, 2013).3On the other hand, ot

23、her studies have utilized workers perceived or self-reportedstatus (i.e., response choices in the survey are fulltime and parttime) in theiroperationalization of part-time employment (Burn, Dennerstein, Browning, & Szoeke,2016; Heimdal & Houseknecht, 2003; Kerrissey & Schofer, 2013). Although theset

24、wo aspects of employment statusperceived part- vs. full-time status and actualnumber of hours workedmay have different meanings, few studies have consideredthem simultaneously.In addition, some of the previous studies have taken into account other relevantconcepts such as precariousness or contingen

25、cy (Kalleberg, 2000, Kalleberg,2009, Kalleberg, 2013; Zukewich, & Cranford, 2003). That is, some scholarsin this area have focused on the possibility that part-time jobs might be accompaniedwith poor job security and lower financial rewards. Indeed, part-time work has beenregarded as one of the prec

26、arious or nonstandard employment, which are oftencharacterized as poor work conditions, low wage, limited benefits, and high jobinsecurity (Fernndez-Kranz and Rodrguez-Planas, 2011, Kalleberg, 2000; Quinlan,Mayhew & Bohle, 2001; MacDonald, & Campbell, 2009). For example,analyzing data from the fourt

27、h European Working Conditions Survey (EWCS) and thesecond European Company Survey (ECS), Sandor (2011) found that compared tofull-time workers, part-time workers are less optimistic about their promotionprospects and less likely to receive education or training at work. Also, a recent reportfrom BLS

28、 (2016b) indicated that part-time workers are more likely to beeconomically disadvantaged than full-time workers. Thus, empirical research on theconsequences of part-time employment should account for relevant work andoccupational conditions as well as financial situation in the analysis model, whic

29、hhelps to minimize an influence of “the third factor” that may bias the associationbetween part-time employment and health.Theoretical perspectivesTheoretically, there could be two opposing hypotheses regarding the effects oftime employment on workers well -being. On one hand, if employees opt for a

30、part-time job voluntarily, they can allocate more time for their personal or4family-related activities (Tilly, 1996). In this case, part-time work may help to managehealth conditions and to balance their work and family life (Booth and van Ours,2013, Higgins et al., 2000; Van Rijswijk, Bekker, Rutte

31、, & Croon, 2004). Moreover,part-time workers may benefit from flexible time that can be spent on education ortraining, which could be an important investment for their human capital and futureearning potential (Gash, 2008). Part-time employment may serve as an importantstrategy for both employees an

32、d employers that can contribute to preservingemployees human capital without leaving the labor market (Falzone,2000, Tomlinson, 2007, Mills and 2010, Vlasblom and Schippers, 2006).On the other hand, part-time workers may have less income and benefits tofinancially support themselves or their familie

33、s (Bardasi and Gornick, 2000, Bardasiand Gornick, 2008, Connolly and Gregory, 2008). In addition, part-time workers mayhave less opportunity for advancement as well as loss in human capital due torestrictions in training or education (Connolly and Gregory, 2008, Kalleberg, 2000).Part-time jobs are o

34、ften regarded as marginalized employment for less qualifiedemployees that is characterized as poor work conditions, which might lead to poorhealth outcomes (Kalleberg, 2000, Sandor, 2011, Scott-Marshall and Tompa, 2011). Ifa growth in part-time employment has been largely driven by employer igh dema

35、ndfor a flexible workforce (Cajner, Mawhirter, Nekarda, & Ratner, 2014), more andmore employees are likely to be engaged in involuntary part -time work, which maylead to poor health and well-being (Dooley, Prause, & Ham-Rowbottom, 2000; Oishiet al., 2015; Tilly, 1996).Therefore, the direction and ma

36、gnitude of the effects of part-time employmentare complexoften termed as “parttime duality,” “complex,” or “paradox” in partdue to the trade-off between potential income effects (or human capital) and timeeffects (Bartoll et al., 2014; Epstein, Seron, Oglensky, & Saute, 2014). In addition,underlying

37、 reasons for working part-time (voluntary vs. involuntary part-time) mayaccount for some of the complexity in the relationship between part-time employmentand health outcomes (Santin, Cohidon, Goldberg, & Imbernon, 2009).Previous research5A review by Quinlan et al. (2001) conducted in early 2000s su

38、ggested that therehad been only a handful of empirical studies on the health effects of part-timeemployment and their results were not consistent. Although a growing body ofresearch has examined the relationship between part- time employment and workershealth and well-being in the last decade, the o

39、verall situation has remain largelyunchanged. Most of these studies are from developed western countries, especially inEurope (Bardasi and Francesconi, 2004, Beham et al., 2012, Bartoll et al.,2014, Rodriguez, 2002), with an exception of a recent study from the Asian region(Oishi et al., 2015). In a

40、ddition, these studies provided markedly different findingsregarding consequences of part-time work. For example, a British study by Bardasiand Francesconi (2004), which used a sample of 8,000 employees from the first tenwaves of the British Household Panel Survey (BHPS), showed that part-timeemploy

41、ment was not associated with adverse health outcomes. In contrast, using twocohorts of German employees (N = 4,047), Burr et al. (2015) revealed that part-timeworkers were more likely to report depressive symptoms than their full-timecounterparts. Also, Oishi et al. (2015) analyzed a merged dataset

42、fromfour East-Asian countries (Korea, Japan, Hong Kong, and Taiwan) and found thatpart-time workers were more likely to report higher levels of work-family conflict andlower levels of job satisfaction than full-time workers.The inconsistent findings across countries and populations imply that the ef

43、fectsof part-time employment may depend on county-specific institutional factors, whichpoints to a need for further research from other countries (or cultures) that can helpdetermine if the consequences of part-time employment for workers well-being differacross countries (Bartoll et al., 2014, Epst

44、ein et al., 2014). Another possibleexplanation for the unclear relationship between part-time employment and health andwell-being may be that relevant job, occupational, and financial conditions might havenot been properly taken into account in previous research. For example, someimportant covariate

45、s, such as job insecurity, occupations, firm sizes, and financialdifficulty, were not adjusted for in previous research, which may lead to omittedvariable bias (Beham et al., 2012, Bartoll et al., 2014, Oishi et al., 2015).6Despite the significance of the issues raised by part-time employment,longit

46、udinal studies on the health and well-being of part-time workers have beenrelatively scarce. Although there are few exceptions (Bardasi and Francesconi,2004, Rodriguez, 2002), the majority of previous studies on this topic have relied oncross-sectional data, which limits causal inference of study fi

47、ndings. Indeed, usingcross-sectional data is especially problematic because it does not allow for thetemporal order of events, which may lead to reverse causation or selection bias. Forexample, it is quite possible that workers health imnditirnscapilityto work full-time or longer hours. Therefore, i

48、n order to address the reverse causalityor health-related selection issues, empirical studies on health effects of part-timeemployment need to use longitudinal data (Oishi et al., 2015, Olsen and Dahl, 2010).Gender differencePrevious research suggests that the effects of part-time employment or work

49、hours may depend on gender (Artazcoz, Borrell, Corts, Escrib-Agir, & Cascant,2007; Bartoll et al., 2014, Benach et al., 2014). For example, female part-timeworkers might have less beneficial health effects because they may face higher levelsof discriminations in terms of salary, fringe benefits, and

50、 opportunity for advancement(Epstein et al., 2014; Repetti, Matthews, & Waldron, 1989; Young, 2010).Furthermore, male and female employees may have different reasons for workingpart-time (Blackwell, 2001, Laurijssen and Glorieux, 2013, Gash, 2008, Lyonette,2015, Walters, 2005). That is, compared to

51、male workers, female workers are morelikely to engage in part-time employment due to additional family responsibilities andobligations placed on them (Epstein et al., 2014; Gjerdingen, McGovern, Bekker,Lundberg, & Willemsen, 2001; Stier and Lewin-Epstein, 2000, Young, 2010). Indeed,some research res

52、ults from the United States have shown that the division of domesticlabor remains gendered (Bianchi, Sayer, Milkie, & Robinson, 2012; Evertsson andNermo, 2004, Greenstein, 2000), suggesting that female part-time workers maydevote more time and effort to family responsibilities such as housework and

53、childcare than males, than to their own health and well-being.Empirical studies regarding gender differences on the association between7part-time work and health have produced inconsistent findings, partly due to thedifferences in study populations and country specific-institutional contexts (Bartol

54、l etal., 2014; Gash, Mertens, & Romeu Gordo, 2010). For example, Bartoll et al.(2014)used cross-sectional data from the 2005 European Working Conditions Survey(4th EWCS) and found that female part-time workers in Scandinavia and theNetherlands were less likely to report work-related stress and psych

55、ological distress,while such relationships were not found among those in Anglo-Saxon countries (i.e.,Ireland and United Kingdom). Although caution is needed in the interpretation of theircross-sectional results, Bartoll et al. (2014) suggested that the gender difference in theassociation between par

56、t-time employment and health might be largely shaped byinstitutional contexts, such as regulation of non-discriminatory practices and labormarket policy for equal treatment between part-time and full-time or between femaleand male workers. These mixed findings across studies reinforce the need for f

57、urtherinvestigation and replication in different countries and populations to clarify thepotentially gendered effect that part-time employment may exert on health outcomes.Contributions of this studyThis study makes several contributions to the literature. First, despite a growingnumber of studies o

58、n the health effects of part-time employment as well as the highprevalence of part-time workers, very little research has been conducted in the UnitedStates. To my knowledge, this is one of the few studies to empirically assess therelationship between part-time employment and health among U.S. worke

59、rs. Second,this study explicitly looks at gender differences and thereby acknowledges thepossibility that the effect of experience in part-time work on health may vary bygender (Bartoll et al., 2014; Kim, Khang, Muntaner, Chun, & Cho, 2008; Ross &Mirowsky, 1995). Third, the majority of previous work

60、 has relied on cross-sectionaldata (Buehler and OBrien, ,rr et al., 2015, Higgins et al., 2000, Oishi et al.,2015, Olsen and Dahl, 2010). The current study uses three-wave panel data, whichallows me to explore the relationship between part-time work and health in alongitudinal research design. Final