土木工程外文翻譯65563

1、本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)外文資料翻譯英文題目：TallingbuildingandSteelconstruction2中文題目：高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)學(xué)院（部）：土木建筑學(xué)院專(zhuān)業(yè)班級(jí)：學(xué)生姓名：指導(dǎo)教師：XXX助教2012年06月02日標(biāo)準(zhǔn)外文資料TallingbuildingandSteelconstructionAlthoughtherehavebeenmanyadvancementsinbuildingconstructiontechnologyingeneral.Spectaculararchievementshavebeenmadeinthedesignandconstructionofultrahi

2、gh-risebuildings.Theearlydevelopmentofhigh-risebuildingsbeganwithstructuralsteelframing.Reinforcedconcreteandstressed-skintubesystemshavesincebeeneconomicallyandcompetitivelyusedinanumberofstructuresforbothresidentialandcommercialpurposes.Thehigh-risebuildingsrangingfrom50to110storiesthatarebeingbui

3、ltallovertheUnitedStatesaretheresultofinnovationsanddevelopmentofnewstructualsystems.GreaterheightentailsincreasedcolumnandbeamsizestomakebuildingsmorerigidsothatunderwindloadtheywillnotswaybeyondanacceptablelimitExcessivelateralswaymaycauseseriousrecurringdamagetopartitions,ceilings.andotherarchite

4、cturaldetails.Inaddition,excessiveswaymaycausediscomforttotheoccupantsofthebuildingbecausetheirperceptionofsuchmotion.Structuralsystemsofreinforcedconcreteaswellassteeltakefulladvantageofinherentpotentialstiffnessofthetotalbuildingandthereforerequireadditionalstiffeningtolimitthesway.Inasteelstructu

5、reforexampletheeconomycanbedefinedintermsofthetotalaveragequantityofsteelpersquarefootoffloorareaofthebuildingCurveAinFig.1representstheaverageunitweightofaconventionalframewithincreasingnumbersofstories.CurveBrepresentstheaveragesteelweightiftheframeisprotectedfromalllateralloads.Thegapbetweentheup

6、perboundaryandthelowerboundaryrepresentsthepremiumforheightforthetraditionalcolumn-and-beamframeStructuralengineershavedevelopedstructuralsystemswithaviewtoeliminatingthispremium.Systemsinsteel.Tallbuildingsinsteeldevelopedasaresultofseveraltypesofstructuralinnovations.Theinnovationshavebeenappliedt

7、otheconstructionofbothofficeandapartmentbuildings.Framewithrigidbelttrusses.Inordertotietheexteriorcolumnsofaframestructuretotheinteriorverticaltrussesasystemofrigidbelttrussesatmid-heightandatthetopofthebuildingmaybeused.AgoodexampleofthissystemistheFirstWisconsinBankBuilding(1974)inMilwaukee.Frame

8、dtube.Themaximumefficiencyofthetotalstructureofatallbuilding,forbothstrengthandstiffnesstoresistwindloadcanbeachievedonlyifallcolumnelement文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)canbeconnectedtoeachotherinsuchawaythattheentirebuildingactsasahollowtubeorrigidboxinprojectingoutoftheground.Thisparticularstructuralsystemwasprobablyusedfo

9、rthefirsttimeinthe43-storyreinforcedconcreteDeWittChestnutApartmentBuildinginChicago.Themostsignificantuseofthissystemisinthetwinstructuralsteeltowersofthe110-storyWorldTradeCenterbuildinginNewYorkColumn-diagonaltrusstube.Theexteriorcolumnsofabuildingcanbespacedreasonablyfarapartandyetbemadetoworkto

10、getherasatubebyconnectingthemwithdiagonalmembersinterestingatthecentrelineofthecolumnsandbeams.ThissimpleyetextremelyefficientsystemwasusedforthefirsttimeontheJohnHancockCentreinChicago,usingasmuchsteelasisnormallyneededforatraditional40-storybuilding.BundledtubeWiththecontinuingneedforlargerandtall

11、erbuildings,theframedtubeorthecolumn-diagonaltrusstubemaybeusedinabundledformtocreatelargertubeenvelopeswhilemaintaininghighefficiency.The110-storySearsRoebuckHeadquartersBuildinginChicagohasninetubebundledatthebaseofthebuildinginthreerows.Someoftheseindividualtubesterminateatdifferentheightsofthebu

12、ilding,demonstratingtheunlimitedarchitecturalpossibilitiesofthislateststructuralconcept.TheSearstower,ataheightof1450ft(442m),istheworldstallestbuilding.Stressed-skintubesystem.Thetubestructuralsystemwasdevelopedforimprovingtheresistancetolateralforces(windandearthquake)andthecontrolofdrift(lateralb

13、uildingmovement)inhigh-risebuilding.Thestressed-skintubetakesthetubesystemastepfurther.Thedevelopmentofthestressed-skintubeutilizesthefa?adeofthebuildingasastructuralelementwhichactswiththeframedtube,thusprovidinganefficientwayofresistinglateralloadsinhigh-risebuildings,andresultingincost-effectivec

14、olumn-freeinteriorspacewithahighratioofnettogrossfloorarea.Becauseofthecontributionofthestressed-skinfa?ade,theframedmembersofthetuberequirelessmass,andarethuslighterandlessexpensive.Allthetypicalcolumnsandspandrelbeamsarestandardrolledshapesminimizingtheuseandcostofspecialbuilt-upmembers.Thedepthre

15、quirementfortheperimeterspandrelbeamsisalsoreduced,andtheneedforupsetbeamsabovefloors,whichwouldencroachonvaluablespace,isminimized.Thestructuralsystemhasbeenusedonthe54-storyOneMellonBankCenterinPittburgh.Systemsinconcrete.Whiletallbuildingsconstructedofsteelhadanearlystart,developmentoftallbuildin

16、gsofreinforcedconcreteprogressedatafastenoughratetoprovideacompetitivechanllengetostructuralsteelsystemsforbothofficeandapartment文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)buildings.Framedtube.Asdiscussedabove,thefirstframedtubeconceptfortallbuildingswasusedforthe43-storyDeWittChestnutApartmentBuilding.Inthisbuilding,exteriorcolumnsweres

17、pacedat5.5ft(1.68m)centers,andinteriorcolumnswereusedasneededtosupportthe8-in.-thick(20-m)flat-plateconcreteslabs.Tubeintube.Anothersysteminreinforcedconcreteforofficebuildingscombinesthetraditionalshearwallconstructionwithanexteriorframedtube.Thesystemconsistsofanouterframedtubeofverycloselyspacedc

18、olumnsandaninteriorrigidshearwalltubeenclosingthecentralservicearea.Thesystem(Fig.2),knownasthetube-in-tubesystem,madeitpossibletodesigntheworldspresenttallest(714ftor218m)lightweighconcretebuilding(the52-storyOneShellPlazaBuildinginHouston)fortheunitpriceofatraditionalshearwallstructureofonly35stor

19、ies.Systemscombiningbothconcreteandsteelhavealsobeendeveloped,anexamleofwhichisthecompositesystemdevelopedbyskidmore,Owings&Merrilinwhichanexteriorcloselyspacedframedtubeinconcreteenvelopsaninteriorsteelframing,therebycombiningtheadvantagesofbothreinforcedconcreteandstructuralsteelsystems.The52-stor

20、yOneShellSquareBuildinginNewOrleansisbasedonthissystem.Steelconstructionreferstoabroadrangeofbuildingconstructioninwhichsteelplaystheleadingrole.Moststeelconstructionconsistsoflarge-scalebuildingsorengineeringworks,withthesteelgenerallyintheformofbeams,girders,bars,plates,andothermembersshapedthroug

21、hthehot-rolledprocess.Despitetheincreaseduseofothermaterials,steelconstructionremainedamajoroutletforthesteelindustriesoftheU.S,U.K,U.S.S.R,Japan,WestGerman,France,andothersteelproducersinthe1970s.Earlyhistory.ThehistoryofsteelconstructionbeginsparadoxicallyseveraldecadesbeforetheintroductionoftheBe

22、ssemerandtheSiemens-Martin(openj-hearth)processesmadeitpossibletoproducesteelinquantitiessufficientforstructureuse.Manyofproblemsofsteelconstructionwerestudiedearlierinconnectionwithironconstruction,whichbeganwiththeCoalbrookdaleBridge,builtincastironovertheSevernRiverinEnglandin1777.Thisandsubseque

23、ntironbridgework,inadditiontotheconstructionofsteamboilersandironshiphulls,spurredthedevelopmentoftechniquesforfabricating,designing,andjioning.Theadvantagesofironovermasonrylayinthemuchsmalleramountsofmaterialrequired.Thetrussform,basedontheresistanceofthetriangletodeformation,longusedintimber,wast

24、ranslatedeffectivelyintoiron,withcastironbeing文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)usedforcompressionmembers-ie,thosebearingtheweightofdirectloading-andwroughtironbeingusedfortensionmembers-ie,thosebearingthepullofsuspendedloading.Thetechniqueforpassingiron,heatedtotheplasticstate,betweenrollstoformflatandroundedbars,wasdevelopedas

25、earlyas1800;by1819angleironswererolled;andin1849thefirstIbeams,17.7feet(5.4m)long,werefabricatedasroofgirdersforaParisrailroadstation.TwoyearslaterJosephPaxtonofEnglandbuilttheCrystalPalacefortheLondonExpositionof1851.Heissaidtohaveconceivedtheideaofcageconstruction-usingrelativelyslenderironbeamsas

26、askeletonfortheglasswallsofalarge,openstructure.ResistancetowindforcesintheCrystalpalacewasprovidedbydiagonalironrods.Twofeatureareparticularlyimportantinthehistoryofmetalconstruction;first,theuseoflatticedgirder,whicharesmalltrusses,aformfirstdevelopedintimberbridgesandotherstructuresandtranslatedi

27、ntometalbyPaxton;andsecond,thejoiningofwrought-irontensionmembersandcast-ironcompressionmembersbymeansofrivetsinsertedwhilehot.In1853thefirstmetalfloorbeamswererolledfortheCooperUnionBuildinginNewYork.Inthelightoftheprincipalmarketdemandforironbeamsatthetime,itisnotsurprisingthattheCooperUnionbeamsc

28、loselyresembledrailroadrails.ThedevelopmentoftheBessemerandSiemens-Martinprocessesinthe1850sand1860ssuddenlyopenthewaytotheuseofsteelforstructuralpurpose.Strongerthanironinbothtensionandcompression,thenewlyavailablemetalwasseizedonbyimaginativeengineers,notablybythoseinvolvedinbuildingthegreatnumber

29、ofheavyrailroadbridgesthenindemandinBritain,Europe,andtheU.S.AnotableexamplewastheEadsBridge,alsoknownastheSt.LouisBridge,inSt.Louis(1867-1874),inwhichtubularsteelribswereusedtoformarcheswithaspanofmorethan500ft(152.5m).InBritain,theFirthofForthcantileverbridge(1883-90)employedtubularstruts,some12ft

30、(3.66m)indiameterand350ft(107m)long.Suchbridgesandotherstructureswereimportantinleadingtothedevelopmentandenforcementofstandardsandcodificationofpermissibledesignstresses.Thelackofadequatetheoreticalknowledge,andevenofanadequatebasisfortheoreticalstudies,limitedthevalueofstressanalysisduringtheearly

31、yearsofthe20thcentury,asiccasionallyfailuressuchasthatofacantileverbridgeinQuebecin1907,revealed.Butfailureswererareinthemetal-skeletonofficebuildings;thesimplicityoftheirdesign文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)provedhighlypracticalevenintheabsenceofsophisticatedanalysistechniques.Throughoutthefirstthirdofthecentury,ordinarycarb

32、onsteel,withoutanyspecialalloystrengtheningorhardening,wasuniversallyused.Thepossibilitiesinherentinmetalconstructionforhigh-risebuildingwasdemonstratedtotheworldbytheParisExpositionof1889.forwhichAlexandre-GustaveEiffel,aleadingFrenchbridgeengineer,erectedanopenworkmetaltower300m(984ft)high.Notonly

33、wastheheight-morethandoublethatoftheGreatPyramid-remarkable,butthespeedoferectionandlowcostwereevenmoreso,asmallcrewcompletedtheworkinafewmonths.Thefirstskyscrapers.Meantime,intheUnitedStatesanotherimportantdevelopmentwastakingplace.In1884-85Maj.WilliamLeBaronJenney,aChicagoengineer,haddesignedtheHo

34、meInsuranceBuilding,tenstorieshigh,withametalskeleton.JenneybeamswereofBessemersteel,thoughhiscolumnswerecastiron.Castironlintelssupportingmasonryoverwindowopeningswere,inturn,supportedonthecastironcolumns.Soildmasonrycourtandpartywallsprovidedlateralsupportagainstwindloading.Withinadecadethesametyp

35、eofconstructionhadbeenusedinmorethan30officebuildingsinChicagoandNewYork.Steelplayedalargerandlargerroleinthese,withrivetedconnectionsforbeamsandcolumns,sometimesstrengthenedforwindbracingbyoverlayinggussetplatesatthejunctionofverticalandhorizontalmembers.Lightmasonrycurtainwalls,supportedateachfloo

36、rlevel,replacedtheoldheavymasonrycurtainwalls,supportedateachfloorlevel,replacedtheoldheavymasonry.ThoughthenewconstructionformwastoremaincentredalmostentirelyinAmericaforseveraldecade,itsimpactonthesteelindustrywasworldwide.Bythelastyearsofthe19thcentury,thebasicstructuralshapes-Ibeamsupto20in.(0.5

37、08m)indepthandZandTshapesoflesserproportionswerereadilyavailable,tocombinewithplatesofseveralwidthsandthicknessestomakeefficientmembersofanyrequiredsizeandstrength.In1885theheavieststructuralshapeproducedthroughhot-rollingweighedlessthan100pounds(45kilograms)perfoot;decadebydecadethisfigureroseuntil

38、inthe1960sitexceeded700pounds(320kilograms)perfoot.CoincidentwiththeintroductionofstructuralsteelcametheintroductionoftheOtiselectricelevatorin1889.Thedemonstrationofasafepassengerelevator,togetherwiththatofasafeandeconomicalsteelconstructionmethod,sentbuildingheightssoaring.InNewYorkthe286-ft(87.2-

39、m)FlatironBuildingof1902wassurpassedin1904bythe文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)375-ft(115-m)TimesBuilding(renamedtheAlliedChemicalBuilding),the468-ft(143-m)CityInvestingCompanyBuildinginWallStreet,the612-ft(187-m)SingerBuilding(1908),the700-ft(214-m)MetropolitanTower(1909)and,in1913,the780-ft(232-m)WoolworthBuilding.Therapidin

40、creaseinheightandtheheight-to-widthratiobroughtproblems.Tolimitstreetcongestion,buildingsetbackdesignwasprescribed.Onthetechnicalside,theproblemoflateralsupportwasstudied.Adiagonalbracingsystem,suchasthatusedintheEiffelTower,wasnotarchitecturallydesirableinofficesrelyingonsunlightforillumination.The

41、answerwasfoundingreaterrelianceonthebendingresistanceofcertainindividualbeamsandcolumnsstrategicallydesignedintotheskeletnframe,togetherwithahighdegreeofrigiditysoughtatthejunctionofthebeamsandcolumns.Withtodaysmoderninteriorlightingsystems,however,diagonalbracingagainstwindloadshasreturned;onenotab

42、leexampleistheJohnHancockCenterinChicago,wheretheexternalX-bracesformadramaticpartofthestructuresfa?ade.WorldWarIbroughtaninterruptiontotheboominwhathadcometobecalledskyscrapers(theoriginofthewordisuncertain),butinthe1920sNewYorksawaresumptionoftheheightrace,culminatingintheEmpireStateBuildinginthe1

43、931.TheEmpireStates102stories(1,250ft.381m)weretokeepitestablishedasthehightestbuildingintheworldforthenext40years.Itsspeedoftheerectiondemonstratedhowthoroughlythenewconstructiontechniquehadbeenmastered.AdepotacrossthebayatBayonne,N.J.,suppliedthegirdersbylighterandtruckonascheduleoperatedwithmilli

44、taryprecision;ninederrickspowerdebyelectrichoistsliftedthegirderstoposition;anindustrial-railwaysetupmovedsteelandothermaterialoneachfloor.Initialconnectionsweremadebybolting,closelyfollowedbyriveting,followedbymasonryandfinishing.Theentirejobwascompletedinoneyearand45days.Theworldwidedepressionofth

45、e1930sandWorldWarIIprovidedanotherinterruptiontosteelconstructiondevelopment,butatthesametimetheintroductionofweldingtoreplacerivetingprovidedanimportantadvance.Joiningofsteelpartsbymetalareweldinghadbeensuccessfullyachievedbytheendofthe19thcenturyandwasusedinemergencyshiprepairsduringWorldWarI,buti

46、tsapplicationtoconstructionwaslimiteduntilafterWorldWarII.Anotheradvanceinthesameareahadbeentheintroductionofhigh-strengthboltstoreplacerivetsinfieldconnections.SincethecloseofWorldWarII,researchinEurope,theU.S.,andJapanhas文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)greatlyextendedknowledgeofthebehaviorofdifferenttypesofstructuralsteelund

47、ervaryingstresses,includingthoseexceedingtheyieldpoint,makingpossiblemorerefinedandsystematicanalysis.Thisinturnhasledtotheadoptionofmoreliberaldesigncodesinmostcountries,moreimaginativedesignmadepossiblebyso-calledplasticdesign?Theintroductionofthecomputerbyshort-cuttingtediouspaperwork,madefurther

48、advancesandsavingspossible.中文翻譯文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)高層結(jié)構(gòu)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)近來(lái)幾年來(lái)，盡管一般的建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)獲取了很大的進(jìn)步，但是獲取顯然成績(jī)的還要屬超高層建筑結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)。最初的高層建筑設(shè)計(jì)是從鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的設(shè)計(jì)開(kāi)始的。鋼筋混凝土和受力外包鋼筒系統(tǒng)運(yùn)用起來(lái)是比較經(jīng)濟(jì)的系統(tǒng)，被有效地運(yùn)用于大批的民用建筑和商業(yè)建筑中。50層到100層的建筑被定義為超高層建筑。而這種建筑在美國(guó)得廣泛的應(yīng)用是由于新的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的發(fā)展和創(chuàng)新。這樣的高度需要增大柱和梁的尺寸，這樣以來(lái)能夠使建筑物更加堅(jiān)固以致于在贊同的限度范圍內(nèi)承受風(fēng)荷載而不產(chǎn)生波折和傾斜。過(guò)分的傾斜會(huì)以致建筑的隔斷構(gòu)件、頂棚以及其他建筑細(xì)部產(chǎn)生循環(huán)損壞

49、。除此之外，過(guò)大的搖動(dòng)也會(huì)使建筑的使用者們因感覺(jué)到這樣的的晃動(dòng)而產(chǎn)生不愉快的感覺(jué)。無(wú)論是鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)還是鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)都充分利用了整個(gè)建筑的剛度潛力，因此不能夠期望利用節(jié)余的剛度來(lái)限制側(cè)向位移。在鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)設(shè)計(jì)中，經(jīng)濟(jì)估量是依照每平方英寸地板面積上的鋼材的數(shù)量確定的。圖示1中的曲線A顯示了老例框架的平均單位的重量隨著樓層數(shù)的增加而增加的情況。而曲線B顯示則顯示的是在框架被保護(hù)而不受任何側(cè)向荷載的情況下的鋼材的平均重量。上界和下界之間的地域顯示的是傳統(tǒng)梁柱框架的造價(jià)隨高度而變化的情況。而結(jié)構(gòu)工程師改進(jìn)結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的目的就是減少這部分造價(jià)。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)中的系統(tǒng)：鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的高層建筑的發(fā)展是幾種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)創(chuàng)新的結(jié)

50、果。這些創(chuàng)新的結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)被廣泛地應(yīng)用于辦公大樓和公寓建筑中。剛性帶式桁架的框架結(jié)構(gòu)：為了聯(lián)系框架結(jié)構(gòu)的外柱和內(nèi)部帶式桁架，能夠在建筑物的中間和頂部設(shè)置剛性帶式桁架。1974年在米望基建筑的威斯康森銀行大樓就是一個(gè)很好的例子?？蚣芡步Y(jié)構(gòu)：若是所有的構(gòu)件都用某種方式互相聯(lián)系在一起，整個(gè)建筑就像是從地面發(fā)射出的一個(gè)空心筒體或是一個(gè)剛性盒子相同。這個(gè)時(shí)候此高層建筑的整個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)抵抗風(fēng)荷載的所有強(qiáng)度和剛度將達(dá)到最大的效率。這種特其他結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)首次被芝加哥的43層鋼筋混凝土的德威特紅棕色的公寓大樓所采用。但是這種結(jié)構(gòu)體系的的所有應(yīng)用中最引人凝視的還要屬在紐約建筑的100層的雙筒結(jié)構(gòu)的世界貿(mào)易中心大廈。斜撐桁架筒體

51、：建筑物的外柱能夠互相獨(dú)立的間隔部署，也能夠借助于經(jīng)過(guò)梁柱中心線的交織的斜撐構(gòu)件聯(lián)系在一起，形成一個(gè)共同工作的筒體結(jié)構(gòu)。這種高度的結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)首次被芝加哥的JohnHancock中心大廈采用。這項(xiàng)工程所耗用的剛剛量與傳統(tǒng)的四十層高樓的用鋼量相當(dāng)。文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)筒體：隨著對(duì)更高層建筑的要求不斷地增大。筒體結(jié)構(gòu)和斜撐桁架筒體被設(shè)計(jì)成捆束狀以形成更大的筒體來(lái)保持建筑物的高效能。芝加哥的110層的SearsRoebuck總部大樓有9個(gè)筒體，從基礎(chǔ)開(kāi)始分成三個(gè)部分。這些獨(dú)立筒體中的終端處在不相同高度的建筑體中，這充分表現(xiàn)出了這種新式結(jié)構(gòu)看法的建筑風(fēng)格自由化的潛能。這座建筑物1450英尺（442米）高，是世界上最高

52、的大廈。薄殼筒系通通：這種筒體結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計(jì)是為了加強(qiáng)超高層建筑抵抗側(cè)力的能力（風(fēng)荷載和地震荷載）以及建筑的抗側(cè)移能力。薄殼筒體是筒系通通的又一大飛馳。薄殼筒體的進(jìn)步是利用高層建筑的正面（墻體和板）作為與筒體共同作用的結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件，為高層建筑抵抗側(cè)向荷載供應(yīng)了一個(gè)有效的路子，而且可獲取不用設(shè)柱，成本較低，使用面積與建筑面積之比又大的室內(nèi)空間。由于薄殼立面的貢獻(xiàn)，整個(gè)框架筒的構(gòu)件無(wú)需過(guò)大的質(zhì)量。這樣以來(lái)使得結(jié)構(gòu)既輕快又經(jīng)濟(jì)。所有的典型柱和窗下墻托梁都是軋制型材，最大程度上減小了組合構(gòu)件的使用和耗費(fèi)。托梁周?chē)暮穸纫部珊线m的減小。而可能據(jù)有難得空間的墻上鐓梁的尺寸也能夠最大程度地獲取控制。這種結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)

53、已被建筑在匹茲堡洲的OneMellon銀行中心所運(yùn)用。鋼筋混凝土中的各系統(tǒng)：誠(chéng)然鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的高層建筑起步比較早，但是鋼筋混凝土的高層建筑的發(fā)展特別快，無(wú)論在辦公大樓還是公寓住處方面都成為剛結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)的有力競(jìng)爭(zhēng)對(duì)手。框架筒：像上面所提到的，框架筒構(gòu)思首次被43層的迪威斯公寓大樓所采用。在這座大樓中，外柱的柱距為5.5英尺（1.68米）。而內(nèi)柱則需要支撐8英寸厚的無(wú)梁板。筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)：另一種針對(duì)于辦公大樓的鋼筋混凝土系統(tǒng)把傳統(tǒng)的剪力墻結(jié)構(gòu)與外框架筒相結(jié)合。該系統(tǒng)由柱距很小的外框架與圍繞中心設(shè)備區(qū)的剛性剪力墻筒組成。這種筒中筒結(jié)構(gòu)（如插圖2）使得當(dāng)前生界上最高的輕質(zhì)混凝土大樓（在休斯頓建筑的獨(dú)殼購(gòu)物中心大廈

54、）的整體造價(jià)只與35層的傳統(tǒng)剪力墻結(jié)構(gòu)相當(dāng)。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)與混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)的結(jié)合系統(tǒng)也有所發(fā)展。Skidmore,Owings和Merrill共同設(shè)計(jì)的混雜系統(tǒng)就是一個(gè)好例子。在此系統(tǒng)中，外面的混凝土框架筒包圍著內(nèi)部的鋼框架，從而結(jié)合了鋼筋混凝土系統(tǒng)與鋼結(jié)構(gòu)系統(tǒng)各自的優(yōu)點(diǎn)。在新奧爾良建筑的層的獨(dú)殼廣場(chǎng)大廈就是運(yùn)用了這種系統(tǒng)。鋼結(jié)構(gòu)是指在建筑物結(jié)構(gòu)中鋼材起著主導(dǎo)作用的結(jié)構(gòu)，是一個(gè)很廣泛的看法。大部分的鋼結(jié)構(gòu)都包括建筑設(shè)計(jì)，工程技術(shù)、工藝。平時(shí)還包括以主梁、次梁、桿件，板等形式存在的鋼的熱軋加工工藝。上個(gè)世紀(jì)七十年代，除了對(duì)其他資料的需求在增加，鋼結(jié)構(gòu)依舊保持著對(duì)于來(lái)自美國(guó)、英國(guó)、日本、西德、法國(guó)等國(guó)家的鋼材

55、廠鋼材的大批需求。文案標(biāo)準(zhǔn)發(fā)展歷史：早在Bessemer和Siemens-Marton(開(kāi)放式爐)工藝出現(xiàn)以前，鋼結(jié)構(gòu)就已經(jīng)有幾十年的歷史了。而直到此工藝問(wèn)世此后才使得鋼材能夠大批生產(chǎn)出來(lái)供結(jié)構(gòu)所用。對(duì)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)諸多問(wèn)題的研究開(kāi)始于鐵結(jié)構(gòu)的使用，當(dāng)時(shí)很出名的研究對(duì)象是1977年在英國(guó)建筑的橫跨斯沃河的Coalbrookdale大橋。這座大橋以及此后的鐵橋設(shè)計(jì)再加上蒸汽鍋爐、鐵船身的設(shè)計(jì)都刺激了建筑安裝設(shè)計(jì)以及連接工藝的發(fā)展。鐵結(jié)構(gòu)對(duì)資料的需求量較小是優(yōu)勝于磚石結(jié)構(gòu)的主要方面。長(zhǎng)久以來(lái)素來(lái)用木材制作的三角桁架也換成鐵制的了。承受由直接荷載產(chǎn)生的重力作用的受壓構(gòu)件常用鑄鐵制造，而承受由懸掛荷載產(chǎn)生的推

56、力作用的受拉構(gòu)件常用熟鐵制造。把鐵加熱到塑性狀態(tài)，使之從卷狀轉(zhuǎn)變成扁平狀與圓狀之間的某一狀態(tài)的工藝，早在1800年就得以發(fā)展了。隨后，1819年角鋼問(wèn)世，1894年第一個(gè)工字鋼被建筑出來(lái)作為巴黎火車(chē)站的頂梁。此工字鋼長(zhǎng)17.7英尺）（5.4米）。1851年英國(guó)的JosephPaxtond為倫敦博覽會(huì)建筑了水晶宮。聽(tīng)聞當(dāng)時(shí)他已有這樣的骨架結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)思：用比較細(xì)的鐵梁作為玻璃幕墻的骨架。此建筑的風(fēng)荷載抵抗力是由對(duì)角拉桿所供應(yīng)的。在金屬結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展歷史中，有兩個(gè)標(biāo)志性事件：第一是從木橋發(fā)展而來(lái)的格構(gòu)梁由木制轉(zhuǎn)變成鐵制；其次是鍛鐵制的受拉構(gòu)件與鑄鐵制的受壓構(gòu)件受熱后經(jīng)過(guò)鉚釘連接工藝的發(fā)展。十九世紀(jì)五六十年代

57、，Bessemer與Siemens-Martin工藝的發(fā)展使鋼材的生產(chǎn)能滿(mǎn)足結(jié)構(gòu)的需求。鋼的受拉強(qiáng)度與受壓強(qiáng)度都好于鐵。這種新式的金屬常被有想象力的工程師所利用，特別倍受那些參加過(guò)英國(guó)、歐洲以及美國(guó)的道橋建設(shè)的工程師的喜愛(ài)。其中一個(gè)很好的例子就是Eads大橋（也被稱(chēng)為路易斯洲大橋）（1867-1874）。在這座大橋中，每隔500英尺（152.5米）設(shè)有由鋼管加強(qiáng)肋形成的拱。英國(guó)的FirthofForth懸索橋設(shè)有管件支撐，直徑大體為12英尺（3.66米），長(zhǎng)度為350英尺（107）米。這些大橋以及其他結(jié)構(gòu)在引導(dǎo)鋼結(jié)構(gòu)的發(fā)展，規(guī)范的推行，許用應(yīng)力的設(shè)計(jì)方面起到了很重要的作用。1907年Quebec懸索大橋的有時(shí)損壞揭示