考研英語(yǔ)英譯漢-英語(yǔ)長(zhǎng)句的譯法

一、1988?1996年碩士研究生入學(xué)考試英譯漢試題1988年試題SeatedbehindthefrontdeskataNewYorkfirm,thereceptionistwasefficient,stylishlydressed,thefirm'snewestemployeehadapleasanttelephonevoiceandanaturalcharmthatputclientsatease.Thecompanywaspleased:Clearly,thiswasapersonwhotookconsiderableprideinpersonalappearance.DavidKing,thereceptionist,isunusual,butbynomeansunique.(1)Justasalltruckdriversandconstructionworkersarenolongernecessarilymen,allsecretariesandreceptionistsarenolongerautomaticallywomen.Thenumberofmeninwomen-dominatedfieldsisstillsmallandtheyhaven'tattractedtheattentionthathasoftenfollowedwomenadvancingintomale-dominatedfields,butmenaremovingintomoreandmorejobsthathavetraditionallybeenheldbywomen.Strictlyspeaking,thephenomenonisnotnew.Forthepastfewdecades,menhavebeenquietlyenteringfieldssuehasnursing,socialworksandelementaryeducation.Buttodaynojobsseemsoff-limits.Menservecoffeeinofficesandmealsonairplanes.(2)Thesechangesarehelpingtoinfluencesomeofthelongstandingtraditionsaboutthetypesofworkmenandwomencando-buttheyalsoproducesomeundeniableproblemsforthemenwhoareentenngthosefieldsformerlydominatedbywomen.Whatkindsofmenventureintotheseso-calledwomen'sfields?Allkinds.Idon*tknowofanydefineanswersI'dbecomfortablewith,“explainsJosephPieck,Ph.D.oftheWellesleyCollegeCenterforResearchonwomen.SamoOrmont,forexample,athirty-year-oldnurseatBostonhospital,wentintonursingbecausethearmyhadtrainedhimasamedicalworker.(3) “ Ifoundthatworkveryinteresting “ herecalled,andwhenIgotoutoftheserviceitjustseemednaturalfbrmetogointosomethingmedical.Iwasn'treallyinterestedinbecomingadoctor.”Thirty-five-year-oldDavidking,anout-of-workactor,foundajobasareceptionistbecausehewashavingtroublelandingrolesinBroadwayplaysandheneededtopaytherent.Inotherwords,menenter ” female“jobsoutofthesameconsideractionforpersonalinterestandeconomicnecessitythatmotivatesanyonelookingforwork.Butsimilaritiesoftenendthere.Meninfemale-dominatedjobsareconspicuous.Asagroup,theirworkhistoriesdifferinmostrespectsfromthoseoftheirfemalecolleagues,andtheyarefrequentlytreateddifferentlybythepeoplewithwhomtheyareinprofessionalcontact.Thequestionnaturallyarises;Whyaretherestillapproximatelyninety-ninefemalesecretariesforeveryonemale?Thereisalsoamoreandmoreseriousissue.Mostmendon'twanttobereceptionists,nurses,secretaries,orsewingworkers.Putsimply,thesearenotgenerallyconsideredverymasculinejobs.Tochoosesuchalineofworkistoinviteridicule.Therewaskiddinginthebeginning,“recallsOrmont."KidscomingfromschoolaskwhatIam,andwhenIsay'Anurse*,theylaughatme.Ijustsmileandsay,'Youknow,therefemaledoctors,tooStill,thereareencouragingsigns.Yearsago,malegradeschoolteacherswereasrareasmalenurses.Todaymorethanoneelementaryschoolteacherinsixismale.Canweanticipateadaywhensecretarieswillbeanevenmixofmenandwomen-orwhenthementionofamaIenursewillnolongerraiseeyebrows?It'sprobablycoming-butnotverysoon.(1)正像卡車司機(jī)和建筑工人再?zèng)]有必要都是男的一樣，秘書和接待員再也不一定都是女的。(2)這些變化正影響著長(zhǎng)期存在的傳統(tǒng)觀念中關(guān)于男女可以干哪幾類工作的看法，但這對(duì)于進(jìn)入原先以婦女為主的那些領(lǐng)域的男人來(lái)說，無(wú)疑也帶來(lái)了一些問題。(3)他回憶說：“我覺得那種工作十分有趣，當(dāng)我退役時(shí)，對(duì)我來(lái)說，去干某種醫(yī)務(wù)工作，似乎是極其自然的”(4)換句話說，男人干起了“女人干”的工作，其動(dòng)機(jī)是同任何找工作干的人一樣，既出于個(gè)人的興趣，也出于經(jīng)濟(jì)上需要的考慮.(5)我們能否預(yù)見這一天：那時(shí)秘書的男女各占一半或有人提到某個(gè)男人當(dāng)護(hù)士時(shí)，人們不會(huì)感到吃驚。1989年試題WhenJaneMathesenstartedworkatAdvancedElectronicsInc.12yearsago,(1)Shelabouredoveramicroscope,hand-weldingtinyelectroniccomputersandturnedout18perhour.Nowsheturntendsthecomputerizedmachinerythatturnsouthighcapacitymemorychipsatrateof26(X)perhour.Productionisup,profitsareup,herincomeisupandMrs.Mathesensaystheworkisfbrlessstrainonhereyes.ButthemostsignificanteffectofchangesAEIwasfeltbytheworkerswhoarenolongerthere.Beforethecompulerizedequipmentwasintroduced,therewere940workersattheplant.Nowtherewere121.Aplantfollow-upsurveyshowedthatoneyearafterthelayoffsonly38%ofthereleasedworkersfoundnewemploymentatthesameorbetterwages.Nearlyhalffinallysettledforlowerpayandmorethan13%arestilloutofwork.TheAELexampleisonlyoneofhundredsaroundthecountrywhichfbrgeintelligentlyaheadintothelatesttechnology,butleavethemajorityoftheirworkersbehind.Itsbeginningobscuredbyunemploymentcausedbytheworldeconomicslow-down,thenewtechnologicalunemploymentmayemergeasthegreatsocio-economicchallengeoftheendofthe20thcentury.Onecorporationeconomistsaysthegrowthof“machinejobreplacement“hasbeenwithussincethebeginningoftheindustrialrevolution,butneveratpaceitisnow.Thehumancostswillbeastonishing.(3)“It'shumiliatingtobedoneoutofyourjobbyamachineandthereisnowaytofightback,butitistheefforttofindanewjobthatreallyhurts."Someworkers,likeJaneMathesen,areretrainedtohandlethenewequipment,butoftenawholenewsetofskillsisrequiredandthatmeansanew,andinvariablysmaller,setofworkers.Theoldworkers,trappedbytheirlimitedskills,oftenneverregaintheiroldstatusandemployment.Manydriftintomarginalareas.Theyfeelnoprideintheirnewwork.Theygetbadlypaidforitandtheyfeelmiserable,butstilltheyareluckierthanthosewhoneverfindit.Thesocialcostsgofarbeyondthewelfareandunemploymentpaymentsmakebythegovernment.Unemploymentincreaseschancesofdivorce,childabuse,andalcoholism,anewfederalshows.Someexpertssaytheproblemisonlytemporary(thatnewtechnologywilleventuallycreateasmanynewjobsasitdestroys.(4)ButfuturologistHymenSeymoursaystheastonishingefficiencyofthenewtechnologymeanstherewillheasimpleanddirectnetredactionintheamountoflabourthatneedstobedone."Weshouldtreatthisasanopportunitytogivepeoplemoreleisure.Itmaynotbeeasy,butsocietywillhavetoreachanewunanimityonthedivisionanddistributionoflabour.”Seymoursays.Hepredictsmostpeoplewillworkonlysixhourdaysandfour-dayweeksbytheendofthecentury.Buttheconcernoftheunemployedisfornow.(5)Federallyfundedtrainingandfreeback-to-schoolprogramsforlaid-offworkersareunderway,butfewexpertsbelievetheywillbeabletokeepupwiththepaceofthenewtechnology.Forthenextfewyears,forasubstantialportionoftheworkforce,timesaregoingtobeverytoughindeed.(1)她吃力地伏在顯微鏡上干活，用手工焊制小型電子計(jì)算機(jī)，每小時(shí)能焊好18個(gè)。(2)盡管新技術(shù)引起的失業(yè)的初兆被世界的經(jīng)濟(jì)衰退所造成的失業(yè)現(xiàn)象所掩蓋，但是新技術(shù)引起的失業(yè)現(xiàn)象可構(gòu)成20世紀(jì)末的巨大的社會(huì)-經(jīng)濟(jì)難題。(3)被一臺(tái)機(jī)器奪走你的工作是很傷自尊心的，可又無(wú)法抗衡，但真正令人傷心的是要費(fèi)很大的勁才能找到新的工作。(4)未來(lái)學(xué)家海曼?西摩說，新技術(shù)具有的驚人效率意味著所需要的勞動(dòng)力將出現(xiàn)一個(gè)絕對(duì)的和直接的凈減數(shù)。(5)為失業(yè)工人提供的由聯(lián)邦政府資助的培訓(xùn)計(jì)劃和免費(fèi)重返學(xué)校學(xué)習(xí)的計(jì)劃目前都在實(shí)施中，但專家中幾乎沒人認(rèn)為這些計(jì)劃能跟得上新技術(shù)的發(fā)展步伐。1990年試題Peoplehavewonderedfbralongtimehowtheirpersonalitiesandbehaviorsareformed.Itisnoteasytoexplainwhyonepersonisintelligentandanotherisnot,orwhyoneiscooperativeandanotheriscompetitive.Socialscientistsare,ofcourse,extremelyinterestedinthesetypesofquestions.(1)Theywanttoexplainwhywepossesscertaincharacteristicsandexhibitcertainbehavior.Therearenoclearanswersyet,buttwodifferentschoolsofthoughtonthematterhavedeveloped.Asonemightexpect,thetwoapproachesareverydifferentfromeachother.Thecontroversyisoftenconvenientlyreferredtoas”naturevs.nurture.MThosewhosupportthe“nature”sideoftheconflictbelievethatourpersonalitiesandbehaviorarelargelydeterminedbybiologicalfactors.(3)Thatourenvironmenthaslittle,ifanything,todowithourabilities,characleristicsandbehavioriscentraltothistheory.Takentoanextreme,thistheorymaintainsthatourbehaviorispredeterminedtosuchagreatdegreethatwearealmostcompletelygovernedbyourinstincts.Thosewhosupportthe“nurture“theory,thatis,theyadvocateeducation,areoftencalledbehaviorists.Theyclaimthatourenvironmentismoreimportantthanourbiologicallybasedinstinctsindetermininghowwewillact.Abehaviorists,B.F.Skinner,seeshumansasbeingswhosebehaviorisaalmostcompletelyshapedbytheirsurroundings.Thebehavioristsmaintainthat,likemachines,humansrespondtoenvironmentalstimuliasthebasisoftheirbehavior.Leiusexaminethedifferentexplanationaboutonehumancharacteristic,intelligence,offeredbythetwotheories.Supportersofthe“nature“theoryinsistthatwearebomwithacertaincapacityfbrlearningthatisbiologicallydetermined.Needlesstosay,theydon'tbelievethatfactorsintheenvironmenthavemuchinfluenceonwhatisbasicallyapredeterminedcharacteristic.Ontheotherhand,behavioristsarguethatourintelligencelevelsareproductofourexperiences.(4)Behavioristsuggestthatthechildwhoisraisedtoanenvironmentwheretherearemanystimuliwhichdevelophisorhercapacityfbrappropriateresponseswillexperiencegreaterintellectualdevelopment.Thesocialandpoliticalimplicationsofthesetwotheoriesareprofound.IntheUnitedStates,blacksoftenscorebelowwhitesonstandardizedintelligencetests.Thisleadssome“nature“proponentstoconcludethatblacksarebiologicallyinferiortowhites.(5)Behaviorists,incontrast,saythatdifferencesinscoresareduetothefactthatblacksareoftendeprivedofmanyoftheeducationalandotherenvironmentaladvantagesthatwhitesenjoy.(1)他們想要說明，為什么我們有某些性格特征和表現(xiàn)出某些行為。(2)在這場(chǎng)爭(zhēng)論中，贊成“天性”一方面的那些人認(rèn)為，我們的性格特征和行為模式大多是由生物因素所決定的。(3)這種理論的核心是，我們的環(huán)境同我們的才能、性格特征和行為即使有什么聯(lián)系的話，也是微不足道的。(4)行為主義的看法是，如果一個(gè)兒童在有許多刺激的環(huán)境中成長(zhǎng)，而這些刺激物能夠發(fā)展其作出適當(dāng)反應(yīng)的能力，那么這個(gè)兒童將會(huì)有更高的智力發(fā)展。(5)相反，行為主義者認(rèn)為，成績(jī)的差異是由于黑人往往被剝奪了白人在教育及其他環(huán)境方面所享有的許多有利條件。1991年試題Thefactisthattheenergycrisis,whichissuddenlybeenofficiallyannounced,hasbeenwithusforalongtimenow,andwillbewithusforanevenlongertime.WhetherAraboilflowsfreelyornot,itiscleartoeveryonethatworIdindustrycannotbeallowedtodependonsofragileabase.Thesupplyofoilcanbeshutoffunexpectedlyatanytime,andinanycase,theoilwellswillallrundryinthirtyyearsorsoatthepresentrateofuse.Newsourcesofenergymustbefound,andthiswilltaketime,butitisnotlikelytoresultinanysituationthatwillrestorethatsenseofcheapandplentifulenergywehavehadinthetimespast.Foranindefiniteperiodfromhereon,mankindisgoingtoadvancecautiously,andconsideritselfluckythatitcanadvanceatall.lbmakethissituationworse,thereisasyetnotsignthatanyslowingoftheworld'spopulationisinsight.Althoughthebirth-ratehasdroppedinsomenations,includingtheUnitedStates,thepopulationoftheworldseemssuretopasssixbillionandperhapsevensevenbillionasthetwenty-firstcenturyopens.Thefbodsupplywillnotincreasenearlyenoughtomatchthis,whichmeansthatweareheadingintoacrisisinthematterofproducingandmarketingfood.Takingallthisintoaccount,whatmightwereasonablyestimatesupermarketstobelikeintheyear2(X)1?lbbeginwith,theworldfoodsupplyisgoingtobecomesteadilytighteroverthepastthirtyyearsevenhereintheUnitedStates.By2001,thepopulationoftheUnitedStateswillbeatleasttwohundredfiftymillionandpossiblytwohundredseventymillion,andthenationwillfinditdifficulttoexpandfoodproductiontofilltheadditionalmouths.(4)Thiswillbeparticularlytruesinceenergypinchwillmakeitdifficulttocombineagricultureinthehigh-energyAmericanfashionthatmakesitpossibletocombinefewfarmerswithhighyields.Itseemsalmostcertainthatby2(X)1theUnitedStateswillnolongerbeagreatfbod-exportingnationandthat,ifnecessaryforcesexports,itwillbeatthepriceofbelt-tighteningathome.Infact,asfooditemswilltendtodeclineinqualityanddecreasesinvariety,thereisverylikelytobeincreasinguseofflavoringadditives.(5)Untilsuchtimeasmankindhasthesensetoloweritspopulationtothepointwheretheplanetcanprovideacomfortablesupportforall,peoplewillhavetoacceptmoreuunnaturalfoodM.(1)石油供應(yīng)可能隨時(shí)被切斷；不管怎樣，以口前這種石油消費(fèi)速度，只需30年左右，所有的油井都會(huì)枯竭。(2)必須找到新的能源，這需要時(shí)間，而過去我們感到能源價(jià)廉而充足的情況將不大可能出現(xiàn)了。(3)食品供應(yīng)的增長(zhǎng)將趕不上人口的增長(zhǎng)，這就意味著，我們?cè)诩Z食生產(chǎn)和購(gòu)銷方面正陷入危機(jī)。(4)這種困境將是確定無(wú)疑的，因?yàn)槟茉吹膮T乏使農(nóng)業(yè)無(wú)法以高能量消耗這種美國(guó)耕作方式繼續(xù)卜去，而這種耕作方式使投入極少數(shù)農(nóng)民就可獲得高產(chǎn)成為可能。(5)除非人類終于意識(shí)到要把人口減少到地球能為所有人提供足夠的飲食的程度，否則人們將不得不接受更多的“人造食品”。1992年試題Thereismoreagreementonthekindsofbehaviorreferredtobythetermthanthereisonhowtointerpretorclassifythem.Butitisgenerallyagreedthatapersonofhighintelligenceisonewhocangraspideasreadily,makedistinctions,reasonlogically,andmakeuseofverbalandmathematicalsymbolsinsolvingproblems.Anintelligencetestisaroughmeasureofachild'scapacityforlearning,particularlyforlearningthekindsofthingsrequiredinschool.Itdoesnotmeasurecharacter,socialadjustment,physicalendurance,manualskill,orartisticabilities.Itisnotsupposedto—itwasnotdesignedforsuchpurposes.(2)lbcriticizeitforsuchfailureisroughlycomparabletocriticizingathermometerfornotmeasuringwindvelocity.Theotherthingwehavetonoticeisthattheassessmentoftheintelligenceofanysubjectisessentiallyacomparativeaffair.Nowsincetheassessmentofintelligenceisacomparativematterwemustbesurethatthescalewithwhichwearecomparingoursubjectsprovides'valid*or'fair'comparison.Itisherethatsomeofthedifficultieswhichinterestusbegin.Anytestperformedinvolvesatleastthreefactors:theintentiontoone'sbest,theknowledgerequiredforunderstandingwhatyouhavetodo,andtheintellectualabilitytoit.(4)Thefirsttwomustbeequalforallwhoarebeingcompared,ifanycomparisonintermsofintelligenceistobemade.Inschoolpopulationsinourculturetheseassumptioncanbemadefairandreasonable,andthevalueofintelligencetestinghasbeenprovedthoroughly.Ilsvaluelies,ofcourse,initsprovidingasatisfactorybasisforprediction.Noneisintheleastinterestedinthemarksalittlechildgetsonhistest;whatweareinterestediniswhetherwecanconcludefromhismarkonthetestthatthechildwilldobetterorworsethanotherchildrenofhisageattaskswhichwethinkrequire'generalintelligence,.(5)Onthewholesuchaconclusioncanbedrawnwithacertaindegreeofconfidence,butonlyifthechildcanbeassumedtohavehadthesameattitudetowardsthetestastheotherwithwhomheisbeingcompared,andonlyifhewasnotpunishedbylackofrelevantinformationwhichhepossessed.(1)人們對(duì)智力那些不同表現(xiàn)的看法比人們對(duì)這些表現(xiàn)如何解釋或分類的看法更為一致。(2)批評(píng)智力測(cè)驗(yàn)不測(cè)孩子的性格等情況，猶如批評(píng)溫度計(jì)不測(cè)風(fēng)速一樣。(3)既然對(duì)智力的評(píng)估是比較而言的，那么我們必須確保，在對(duì)我們的對(duì)象進(jìn)行比較時(shí)，我們所使用的尺度能提供“有效的”或“公平的”比較。(4)如果要在智力方面進(jìn)行任何比較的話、那么對(duì)所有被比較的人來(lái)說，前兩個(gè)因素必須是相同的。(5)總的來(lái)說，得出這種結(jié)論是有一定程度把握的，但是必須具備兩個(gè)條件：能夠假定這個(gè)孩子對(duì)測(cè)試的態(tài)度和與他相比較的孩子態(tài)度相同：他也沒有因?yàn)槿狈ζ渌⒆右颜莆盏挠嘘P(guān)知識(shí)而被扣分。1993年試題Themethodofscientificinvestigationisnothingbuttheexpressionofthenecessarymodeofworkingofthehumanmind;itissimplythemodebywhichallphenomenaarereasonedaboutandgivenpreciseandexplanations.Thereisnomoredifference,butthereisjustthesamedifference,betweenthementaloperationsofamanofscienceandthoseofanordinaryperson,asthereisbetweentheoperationsandmethodsofabakerorofabutcherweighingouthisgoodsincommonscales,andtheoperationsofachemistinperformingadifficultandcomplexanalysisbymeansofhisbalanceandfinelygradedweights.(2)Itisnotthatthescalesintheonecase,andthebalanceintheother,differintheprinciplesoftheirconstructionormannerofworkingbutthatthelatterisamuchfinerapparatusandofcoursemuchmoreaccurateinitsmeasurementthantheformer.Youwillunderstandthisbetter,perhaps,ifIgiveyousomefamiliarexamples.(3)Youhaveallhearditrepeatedthatmenofscienceworkbymeansofinductionanddeduction,thatbythehelpoftheseoperations,they,inasortofsense,managetoextractfromnaturecertainnaturallaws,andthatoutofthese,bysomespecialskillsoftheirown,theybuilduptheirowntheories.(4)Anditisimaginedbymanythattheoperationsofthecommonmindcanbebynomeanscomparedwiththeseprocesses,andthattheyhavetobeacquiredbyasortofspecialtraining.Tohearalltheselargewords,youwouldthinkthatthemindofamanofsciencemustbeconstitutedifferentlyfromthatofhisfellowmen;butifyouwillnotbefrightenedbytheterms,youwilldiscoverthatyouarequitewrong,andthatalltheseterribleapparatusarebeingusedbyyourselveseverydayandeveryhourofyourlive.Thereisawell-knownincidentinoneofMoliere'splays,wheretheauthormakestheheroexpressunboundeddelightonbeingtoldthathehadbeentalkingprose( 散文)duringthewholeofhislife.Inthesameway,Itrustthatyouwilltakecomfort,andbedelightedwithyourselves,onthediscoverythatyouhavebeenactingontheprinciplesofinductiveanddeductivephilosophyduringthesameperiod.(5)Probablythereisnotoneherewhohasnotinthecourseofthedayhadoccasiontosetinmotionacomplextrainofreasoning,oftheverysamekind,thoughdifferingindegree,asthatwhichascientificmangoesthroughintracingthecausesofnaturalphenomenon.(1)科學(xué)研究的方法只不過是人類思維活動(dòng)的必要表達(dá)方式，也就是對(duì)一切現(xiàn)象進(jìn)行思索并給以精確而嚴(yán)謹(jǐn)?shù)谋磉_(dá)方式。(2)并不是說面包師或賣肉的人所用的磅秤在構(gòu)造原理或工作方式上和化學(xué)家所用的天平存在差異，而是說與前者相比較，后者是一種更精密得多的儀器，因而在計(jì)量上必然更準(zhǔn)確得多。(3)我們都多次聽說過，科學(xué)家是用歸納法和演繹法工作的，他們用這些方法，在某種意義上講，力求從自然界找出某種自然規(guī)律，然后根據(jù)這些規(guī)律，用自己的某種非同一般的本領(lǐng)，建立起他們的理論。(4)許多人認(rèn)為，普通人的思維活動(dòng)根木無(wú)法和科學(xué)家的思維過程相比，他們并認(rèn)為這些思維過程必須是經(jīng)過某種專門訓(xùn)練才能掌握。(5)這里大概不會(huì)有人在一整天里沒有機(jī)會(huì)進(jìn)行一連串復(fù)雜的思考活動(dòng)，這些活動(dòng)與科學(xué)家在探索自然現(xiàn)象原因時(shí)所經(jīng)歷的思考活動(dòng)，盡管復(fù)雜程度不同，但在類型上是完全一樣的。1994年試題Accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,technologyisanoverlookedforcesonexpandingthehorizonsofscientificknowledge.(1)Sciencemovesforward,theysay,notsomuchthroughtheinsightsofgreatmenofgeniusasbeeauseofmoreordinarythingslikeimprovedtechniquesandtools.(2)Inshort,aleaderifthenewschoolcontends,**thescientificrevolution,aswcallit,waslargelytheimprovementandinventionanduseofaseriesofinstrumentsthatexpandedthereachofscienceininnumerabledirections.M(3)Overtheyears,toolsandtechnologythemselvesasasourceoffundamentalinnovationhavelargelybeenignoredbyhistoriansandphilosophersofscience.ThemodernschoolthathailstechnologyarguesthatsuchmastersasGalileo,Newton,Maxwell,Einstein,andinventorssuchasEdisonattachedgreatimportanceto,andderivedgreatbenefitfrom,craftinformationandtechnologicaldevicesofdifferentkindsthatwereusableinscientificexperiments.Thecenterpieceoftheargumentofatechnology-yes,genius-noadvocatewasananalysisofGalileo'sroleatthestartofthescientificrevolution.ThiswisdomofthedaywasderivedfromPtolemy,anastronomerofthesecondcentury,whoseelaboratesystemoftheskyputearthatthecenterofallheavenlymotions.(4)Galileo'sgreatestglorywasthatin1609hewasthefirstpersontoturnthenewlyinventedtelescopeontheheavenstoprovethattheplanetsrevolvearoundthesunratherthanaroundtheearth.Buttherealheroofthestory,accordingtothenewschoolofscientists,wasthelongevolutionintheimprovementofmachineryformakingeyeglasses.Federalpolicyisnecessarilyinvolvedinthetechnologyvs.geniusdispute.(5)WhethertheGovernmentshouldincreaseonthefinancingofpurescienceattheexpenseoftechnologyorviceversa( 反之)oftendependsontheissueofwhichisseenasthedrivingforce.(1)他們(新學(xué)派科學(xué)家)說，科學(xué)的發(fā)展與其說源于天才偉人的真知灼見，不如說源于改進(jìn)了的技術(shù)和工具等更為普通的東西。(2)新學(xué)派的一位領(lǐng)袖堅(jiān)持說：“簡(jiǎn)而言之，我們所稱謂的科學(xué)革命，主要是指一系列器具的改進(jìn)、發(fā)明和使用，而這些改進(jìn)、發(fā)明和使用使科學(xué)家發(fā)展的范圍無(wú)所不及(3)工具和技術(shù)本身作為根本性創(chuàng)新的源泉多年來(lái)在很大程度上被歷史學(xué)家和科學(xué)思想家們忽視了。(4)伽利略最光輝的業(yè)績(jī)?cè)谟谒?609年是第一個(gè)把新發(fā)明的望遠(yuǎn)鏡對(duì)準(zhǔn)了天空的人，以證實(shí)行星是圍繞太陽(yáng)旋轉(zhuǎn)而不是圍繞地球旋轉(zhuǎn)的。(5)政府究竟是減少對(duì)技術(shù)經(jīng)費(fèi)的投入來(lái)增加對(duì)純理論科學(xué)的經(jīng)費(fèi)投入，還是相反，這往往取決于把問題的哪一方面看作是驅(qū)動(dòng)的力量。1995年試題Thestandardizededucationalorpsychologicalteststhatarewidelyusedtoaidinselecting,classifying,assigning,orpromotingstudents,employees,andmilitarypersonnelhavebeenthetargetofrecentattacksinbooks,magazines,thedailypress,andeveninCongress.Thetargetiswrong,forinattackingthetests,criticsdivertattentionfromthefaultthatlieswithill-informedorincompetentusers.Theteststhemselvesaremerelytools,withcharacteristicsthatcanbemeasuredwithreasonableprecisionunderspecifiedconditions.Whethertheresultswillhevaluable,meaningless,orevenmisleadingdependspartlyuponthetoolitselfbutlargelyupontheuser.Allinformedpredictionoffutureperformancearebaseduponsomeknowledgeofrelevantpastperformance:schoolgrades,researchproductivity,salesrecords,orwhateverisappropriate.(2)Howwellthepredictionswillbevalidatedbylaterperformancedependsupontheamount,reliability,andappropriatenessoftheinformationusedandontheskillandwisdomwithwhichitisinterpreted.Anyonewhokeepscarefulscoreknowsthattheinformationavailableisalwaysincompleteandthatthepredictionsarealwayssubjectloerror.Standardizedtestsshouldbeconsideredinthiscontext.Theyprovideaquick,objectivemethodofgettingsomekindsofinformationaboutwhatapersonleamed,theskillshehasdeveloped,orthekindofpersonheis.Theinformationsoobtainedhas,qualitatively,thesameadvantagesandshortcomingsasotherkindsofinformation.(3)Whethertousetests,otherkindsofinformation,orbothinaparticularsituationdepends,therefore,upontheevidencefromexperienceconcerningcomparativevalidityanduponsuchfactorsascostandavailability.Ingeneral,thetestsworkmosteffectivelywhenthequalitiestobemeasuredcanbemostpreciselydefinedandleasteffectivelywhenwhatistobemeasuredorpredictedcannotbewelldefined.Properlyused,theyprovidearapidmeansofgettingcomparableinformationaboutmanypeople.Sometimestheyidentifystudentswhosehighpotentialhasnotbeenpreviouslyrecognized,buttherearemanythingstheydonotdo.(5)Forexample,theydonotcompensateforgrosssocialinequality,andthusdonottellhowableanunderprivilegedyoungstermighthavebeenhadhegrownupundermorefavorablecircumstance.(1)把標(biāo)準(zhǔn)化測(cè)試作為抨擊的目標(biāo)是錯(cuò)誤的，因?yàn)樵谂険暨@類測(cè)試時(shí)，批評(píng)者不考慮其弊病來(lái)自于人們對(duì)測(cè)試不甚了解或使用不當(dāng)。⑵這些預(yù)測(cè)在多大程度上為后來(lái)的表現(xiàn)所證實(shí)，這取決于所采用信息的數(shù)量、可靠性和適應(yīng)性，以及解釋這些信息的技能和才智。(3)因此，在某一特定的情況下，究竟是采用測(cè)試還是采用其他種類的信息，或是兩者同時(shí)使用，須憑有關(guān)相對(duì)效度的經(jīng)驗(yàn)依據(jù)而定，也取決于諸如費(fèi)用和有無(wú)來(lái)源等因素。一般地說，當(dāng)所耍測(cè)定的特征能精確地界定時(shí)，測(cè)試最為有效；而當(dāng)所要測(cè)定或預(yù)測(cè)的東西不能明確地界定時(shí)，測(cè)試的效果則最差。⑸例如，測(cè)試并不彌補(bǔ)明顯的社會(huì)不公，因此它們不能說明一個(gè)物質(zhì)條件差的年輕人，如果在較好的環(huán)境下成長(zhǎng)的話，會(huì)有多大的才干。1996年試題Thedifferenceinrelativegrowthofvariousareasofscientificresearchhaveseveralcauses.(1)Someofthesecansesarecompletelyreasonableresultsofsocialneeds.Othersarereasonableconsequencesofparticularadvancesinsciencebeingtosomeextentself-accelerating.Some,however,arelessreasonableprocessesofdifferentgrowthinwhichpreconceptionsoftheformofscientifictheoryoughttotake,bypersonsinauthority,acttoalterthegrowthpatternofdifferentareas.Thisisanewproblemprobablynotyetunavoidable:butitisafrighteningtrend.(2)ThistrendbeganduringtheSecondWorldWar,whenseveralgovernmentscametotheconclusionthatthespecificdemandsthatagovernmentwantstomakeofitsscientificestablishmentcannotgenerallybeforeseenindetail.Itcanbepredicted,however,thatfromtimetotimequestionswillarisewhichwillrequirespecificscientificanswers.Itisthereforegenerallyvaluabletotreatthescientificestablishmentasaresourceormachinetobekeptinfunctionalorder.(3)Thisseemsmostlyeffectivelydonebysupportingacertainamountofresearchnotrelatedloimmediategoalsbutofpossibleconsequencesinthefuture.Thiskindofsupport,likeallgovernmentsupport,requiresdecisionsabouttheappropriaterecipientsoffunds.Decisionsbasedonutilityasopposedtolackofutilityarestraightforward.Butadecisionamongprojectsnoneofwhichhasimmediateutilityismoredifficult.Thegoalofthesupportingagenciesisthepraisableoneofsupporting”good“asopposedto“bad"science,butavaliddeterminationisdifficulttomake.Generally,theideaofgoodsciencetendstobecomeconfusedwiththecapacityofthefieldinquestiontogenerateaneleganttheory.(4)However,theworldissomadethatelegantsystemsareinprincipleunabletodealwithsomeoftheworld'smorefascinatinganddelightfulaspects.(5)Newformsofthoughtaswellasnewsubjectsforthoughtmustariseinthefutureastheyhaveinthepast,givingrisetonewstandardsofelegance.(1)在這些原因中，有些完全是自然而然地來(lái)自社會(huì)需求，另一些則是由于科學(xué)在一定程度上自我加速而取得特定進(jìn)展的必然結(jié)果0(2)這種趨勢(shì)始于第二次世界大戰(zhàn)期間，當(dāng)時(shí)一些國(guó)家的政府得出結(jié)論：政府要向科研機(jī)構(gòu)提出的具體要求通常是無(wú)法詳盡預(yù)見的。(3)給某些與當(dāng)前門標(biāo)無(wú)關(guān)但將來(lái)可能產(chǎn)生影響的科研以支持，看來(lái)通常能有效地解決這個(gè)問題。(4)然而，世界就是如此，完美的體系一?般而言是無(wú)法解決世上某些更引人入勝的課題的。(5)同過去一樣，將來(lái)必然會(huì)出現(xiàn)的新的思維方式和新的思維對(duì)象，給完美以新的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。二、英譯漢補(bǔ)充練習(xí)Passage1Oneoftheearliestandfastest-growingapplicationsofspacetechnologyisthecommunicationssatellite,whichrelayswide-bandradioandtelevisionsignalsbetweenwidelygeographicalpoints.(1)Priortotheadventofthistechnology,elaborateandcostlychainsofmicrowavetowerswerethesolepracticalmeansforpassingtheline-of-sightradioandTVsignalsoverthecurvatureoftheearth.Inthisprocess,signalqualityisdegradedateachrelaypoint,channelcapacityisseverelylimitedandacuteschedulingproblemsareencounteredbecauseitisnotfeasibletorelaymorethanoneprogramatatimetodistantpoints.Moreover,thereisnowaytobridgeoceanswithwide-bandsignalsbymeansofmicrowaverelay.(2)DistantpointslikeAlaskaandHawaiicouldnotsharethetelevisionserviceenjoyedonthecontinentalmainlandoftheUnitedStatesaslongasterrestrialmicrowavewasthesolemeansofwide-bandcommunication.Thecommunicationssatellitehaschangedallthis.TheLJ.S.publictelevisionnetworkhasleasedrelaycapacityinacommercialsatellite.WesternUnion'sWESTAR,and149ofits163memberstationsarebuilding10-meterreceivingantennastoaccepteducationalandotherprogramsfromacentraloriginatingstationlocatednearWashington,D.C.Whentheantennasareallinplacebytheendofthisyear,thepublicnetworkwillabandongroundmicrowaveandrelayexclusivelyuponthespacelink.(3)T