收入與歧視（經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)原理曼昆中英文雙語(yǔ)）課件

EarningsandDiscrimination

收入與歧視Chapter19EarningsandDiscrimination

收DifferencesinEarningsintheU.S.Today

當(dāng)前美國(guó)的收入差距Thetypicalphysicianearnsabout$200,000ayear.

普通醫(yī)生一年賺到20萬(wàn)美元左右。

Thetypicalpoliceofficerearnsabout$50,000ayear.

普通警官一年賺到5萬(wàn)美元左右。Thetypicalfarmworkerearnsabout$20,000ayear.

普通農(nóng)業(yè)工人一年賺到2萬(wàn)美元左右。DifferencesinEarningsintheWhatcausesearningstovarysomuch?

什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？Wagesaregovernedbylaborsupplyandlabordemand.

工資由勞動(dòng)供給與勞動(dòng)需求決定。Labordemandreflectsthemarginalproductivityoflabor.

勞動(dòng)需求反映了勞動(dòng)的邊際生產(chǎn)率。WhatcausesearningstovarysWhatcausesearningstovarysomuch?

什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？Inequilibrium,eachworkerispaidthevalueofhisorhermarginalcontributiontotheeconomy’sproductionofgoodsandservices.

在均衡時(shí)，每個(gè)工人都得到了他對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)中物品與勞務(wù)生產(chǎn)的邊際貢獻(xiàn)的價(jià)值。WhatcausesearningstovarysSomeDeterminantsofEquilibriumWages

決定均衡工資的若干因素Compensatingdifferentials

補(bǔ)償性差別工資Humancapital人力資本Ability,effort,andchance

能力、努力和機(jī)遇Signaling信號(hào)Thesuperstarphenomenon

超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象SomeDeterminantsofEquilibriCompensatingDifferentialsCompensatingdifferentialsrefertodifferencesinwagesthatarisesfromnonmonetarycharacteristics

ofdifferentjobs.Coalminersarepaidmorethanotherswithsimilarlevelsofeducation.Nightshiftworkersarepaidmorethandayshiftworkers.Professorsarepaidlessthanlawyersanddoctors.CompensatingDifferentialsComp補(bǔ)償性差別工資補(bǔ)償性差別工資是指不同工作的非貨幣特性所引起的工資差別。煤礦工人得到的工資高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。夜班工人的工資高于同類白班工人。教授的工資低于受教育時(shí)間大致相同的律師和醫(yī)生。補(bǔ)償性差別工資補(bǔ)償性差別工資是指不同工作的非貨幣特性所引起HumanCapital人力資本Humancapitalistheaccumulationofinvestmentsinpeople.

人力資本——對(duì)人的教育和在職培訓(xùn)投資的積累。Themostimportanttypeofhumancapitaliseducation.

最主要的人力資本是教育。HumanCapital人力資本HumancapitHumanCapitalEducationrepresentsanexpenditureofresourcesatonepointintimetoraiseproductivityinthefuture.Bytheyear2000,amanwithacollegedegreeearnedmorethan89percentmorethanwithoutone.Womenshoweda70percentincreaseinearningsduetoacollegedegree.HumanCapitalEducationreprese人力資本教育代表著為了提高未來(lái)生產(chǎn)率而在某一時(shí)點(diǎn)的資源支出。2000年，一個(gè)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人的平均收入比沒(méi)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人多89％。對(duì)于婦女來(lái)說(shuō)，上大學(xué)的報(bào)酬高出70％。人力資本教育代表著為了提高未來(lái)生產(chǎn)率而在某一時(shí)點(diǎn)的資源支出Table1AverageAnnualEarnings

byEducationalAttainmentCopyright?2004South-WesternTable1AverageAnnualEarning表1.受教育者的平均年收入Copyright?2004South-Western1980年2000年男人高中，未上大學(xué)36430美元36770美元大學(xué)畢業(yè)52492美元69421美元大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn)＋44％+89%婦女高中，未上大學(xué)14953美元17898美元大學(xué)畢業(yè)23170美元35431美元大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn)＋55％+98%注釋：收入數(shù)據(jù)根據(jù)通貨膨脹進(jìn)行了調(diào)整，并用2000年美元表示。表1.受教育者的平均年收入Copyright?2004Whyhasthegapinearningsbetweenskilledandunskilledworkersrisen

inrecentyears?Internationaltradehasalteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Changesintechnologyhavealteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Whyhasthegapinearningsbe為什么近年熟練工人與非熟練工人之間的

收入差距擴(kuò)大了呢？國(guó)際貿(mào)易改變了對(duì)熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。技術(shù)變革改變了熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。為什么近年熟練工人與非熟練工人之間的

收入差距擴(kuò)大了呢？國(guó)際Ability,Effort,andChanceNaturalabilityisimportantforworkersinalloccupations.Manypersonalcharacteristicsdeterminehowproductiveworkersareand,therefore,playaroleindeterminingthewagestheyearn.Ability,Effort,andChanceNat能力、努力和機(jī)遇對(duì)所有職業(yè)的工人來(lái)說(shuō)，天賦能力都是重要的。許多個(gè)人特點(diǎn)決定了工人的勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率，因此這些特點(diǎn)在決定工人所掙得的工資水平上起著重要作用。能力、努力和機(jī)遇對(duì)所有職業(yè)的工人來(lái)說(shuō)，天賦能力都是重要的。AnAlternativeViewofEducation:Signaling

教育的另一種觀點(diǎn)：信號(hào)Firmsuseeducationalattainmentasawayofsortingbetweenhigh-abilityandlow-abilityworkers.

企業(yè)把教育狀況作為區(qū)分高能力工人與低能力工人的一種方法。Itisrationalforfirmstointerpretacollegedegreeasasignal

ofability.企業(yè)把大學(xué)學(xué)位解釋為能力的信號(hào)是合理的。AnAlternativeViewofEducatiTheSuperstarPhenomenonSuperstars

ariseinmarketsthatexhibitthefollowingcharacteristics:Everycustomerinthemarketwantstoenjoythegoodsuppliedbythebestproducer.Thegoodisproducedwithatechnologythatmakesitpossibleforthebestproducertosupplyeverycustomeratalowcost.TheSuperstarPhenomenonSupers超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象超級(jí)明星

產(chǎn)生在有兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)的市場(chǎng)上：市場(chǎng)上每位顧客都想享受最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者提供的物品。使最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者以低成本向每位顧客提供物品成為可能的是生產(chǎn)這種物品所用的技術(shù)。超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象超級(jí)明星產(chǎn)生在有兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)的市場(chǎng)上：Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWagesWhyaresomeworkers’wagessetabovethelevelthatbringssupplyanddemandintoequilibrium?Minimum-wagelawsMarketpoweroflaborunionsEfficiencywagesAbove-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資為什么一些工人的工資確定在高于使勞動(dòng)供求均衡的水平上？最低工資法工會(huì)的市場(chǎng)勢(shì)力效率工資高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資為什么一些工人的工資Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages

UnionsAunion

isaworkerassociationthatbargainswithemployersoverwagesandworkingconditions.StrikeAstrike

referstotheorganizedwithdrawaloflaborfromafirmbyaunion.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資工會(huì)工會(huì)——

與雇主談判工資和工作條件的工人協(xié)會(huì)。罷工罷工——工會(huì)有組織地從企業(yè)撤出勞動(dòng)。高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資工會(huì)Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages

EfficiencyWagesThetheoryofefficiencywages

holdsthatafirmcanfinditprofitabletopayhighwagesbecausedoingsoincreasestheproductivityofitsworkers.Highwagesmay:reduceworkerturnover.increaseworkereffort.raisethequalityofworkersthatapplyforjobsatthefirm.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資效率工資效率工資

認(rèn)為，企業(yè)會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)支付高工資是有利的，因?yàn)檫@樣做提高了工人的生產(chǎn)率。

高工資會(huì):減少工人的流動(dòng)性；提高工人的努力程度；提高適應(yīng)企業(yè)的工人素質(zhì)。高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資效率工資TheEconomicsofDiscriminationDiscriminationoccurswhenthemarketplaceoffersdifferentopportunitiestosimilarindividualswhodifferonlybyrace,ethnicgroup,sex,age,orotherpersonalcharacteristics.TheEconomicsofDiscriminatio歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)當(dāng)市場(chǎng)向那些僅僅是種族、宗教、性別、年齡或其他個(gè)人特征不同的相似個(gè)人提供了不同的機(jī)會(huì)時(shí)，就出現(xiàn)了歧視。歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)當(dāng)市場(chǎng)向那些僅僅是種族、宗教、性別、年齡或其他個(gè)人TheEconomicsofDiscrimination

歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)Althoughdiscriminationisanemotionallychargedtopic,economiststrytostudythetopicobjectivelyinordertoseparatemythfromreality.雖然歧視是一個(gè)經(jīng)常引起激烈爭(zhēng)論的情緒化話題，但經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家力圖客觀地研究這個(gè)題目，以便把假象與真實(shí)分開(kāi)。TheEconomicsofDiscriminatioMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Discriminationisoftenmeasuredbylookingattheaveragewagesofdifferentgroups.常常通過(guò)觀察不同群體的平均工資差別來(lái)衡量勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上的歧視程度。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Eveninalabormarketfreeofdiscrimination,differentpeoplehavedifferentwages.即使在一個(gè)沒(méi)有歧視的勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上，不同人的工資也不同。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Peopledifferintheamountof

humancapital

theyhaveandinthekindsofworktheyarewillingandabletodo.人們擁有的人力資本量以及能夠并愿意從事的工作種類不同。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Simplyobservingdifferencesinwagesamongbroadgroups–whiteandblack,menandwomen–sayslittleabouttheprevalenceofdiscrimination.簡(jiǎn)單地觀察不同群體—白人與黑人、男人與女人—之間的工資差別并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明歧視的普遍性。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimTable2MedianAnnualEarningsbyRaceandSexCopyright?2004South-WesternTable2MedianAnnualEarningsTable2.不同種族與性別的平均收入Copyright?2004South-Western男人38870美元30403美元22％女人28080美元25107美元11％女人工資低28％17％（百分比）注釋：2000年數(shù)據(jù)。

白種人黑種人黑種人收入低（百分比）Table2.不同種族與性別的平均收入CopyrighMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscriminationBecausethedifferencesinaveragewagesamonggroupsinpartreflectdifferencesinhumancapitalandjobcharacteristics,theydonotbythemselvessayanythingabouthowmuchdiscriminationthereisinthelabormarket.MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrim勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量由于不同群體之間平均工資的差別部分反映了人力資本和工作特性的差別，這些差別本身對(duì)勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上有多大歧視并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明什么。勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量由于不同群體之間平均工資的差別部分反映了人DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇主的歧視行為Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillhavelowerlaborcostswhentheyhiretheemployeesdiscriminatedagainst.當(dāng)不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)雇傭受歧視的雇員時(shí)，這些企業(yè)的勞動(dòng)成本更低。DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇主的歧視行為Nondiscriminatoryfirmswilltendtoreplacefirmsthatdiscriminate.不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)取代了進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)。DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇DiscriminationbyEmployersCompetitivemarketstendtolimittheimpactofdiscriminationonwages.Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillbemoreprofitablethanthosefirmsthatdodiscriminate.DiscriminationbyEmployersCo雇主的歧視行為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)將比進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)更具有贏利性。雇主的歧視行為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernmentsAlthoughtheprofitmotiveisastrongforceactingtoeliminatediscriminatorywagedifferentials,therearelimitstoitscorrectiveabilities.CustomerpreferencesGovernmentpoliciesDiscriminationbyCustomersa顧客與政府的歧視行為雖然利潤(rùn)動(dòng)機(jī)是消除歧視性工資差別的一種強(qiáng)大力量，但也存在著針對(duì)這種力量的矯正能力的限制。顧客偏好政府政策顧客與政府的歧視行為雖然利潤(rùn)動(dòng)機(jī)是消除歧視性工資差別的一種強(qiáng)DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernmentsCustomerpreferences:

Ifcustomershavediscriminatorypreferences,acompetitivemarketisconsistentwithadiscriminatorywagedifferential.Thiswillhappenwhencustomersarewillingtopaytomaintainthediscriminatorypractice.DiscriminationbyCustomersa顧客與政府的歧視行為顧客偏好:

如果顧客有歧視偏好，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企業(yè)就與歧視性工資差別相一致。這種情況只有在顧客愿意為他們的歧視性行為付出代價(jià)時(shí)才會(huì)發(fā)生。顧客與政府的歧視行為顧客偏好:DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernments

顧客與政府的歧視行為Governmentpolicies:

Whenthegovernmentmandatesdiscriminatorypracticesorrequiresfirmstodiscriminate,thismayalsoleadtodiscriminatorywagedifferentials.政府政策：當(dāng)政府命令實(shí)行歧視性作法或者要求企業(yè)進(jìn)行歧視時(shí)，將會(huì)導(dǎo)致歧視性工資差別。DiscriminationbyCustomersaTheDebateOverComparableWorth

關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Accordingtothedoctrineofcomparableworth,jobsdeemedcomparableshouldbepaidthesamewage.根據(jù)同工同酬學(xué)說(shuō)，可以相比的工作應(yīng)該得到相同的工資。TheDebateOverComparableWorTheDebateOverComparableWorth

關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Advocatesofcomparableworthwantjobstoberatedaccordingtoasetofimpartialcriteriasuchaseducation,experience,responsibility,workingconditions,andsoon.同工同酬的支持者根據(jù)一套客觀的標(biāo)準(zhǔn)——教育、經(jīng)驗(yàn)、責(zé)任、工作條件等等——來(lái)評(píng)價(jià)工作。TheDebateOverComparableWorTheDebateOverComparableWorth

關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Criticsofcomparablewortharguethatacompetitivemarketisthebestmechanismforsettingwages.同工同酬的批評(píng)者認(rèn)為，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)是決定工資的最好機(jī)制。TheDebateOverComparableWorSummaryWorkersearndifferentwagesformanyreasons.Tosomeextent,wagedifferentialscompensateworkersforjobattributes.Workerswithmorehumancapitalgetpaidmorethanworkerswithlesshumancapital.SummaryWorkersearndifferent小結(jié)工人由于許多原因而賺到不同的工資。在某種程度上，工資差別是對(duì)工人工作性質(zhì)的補(bǔ)償。人力資本多的工人得到的工資高于人力資本少的工人。小結(jié)工人由于許多原因而賺到不同的工資。Summary小結(jié)Thereturntoaccumulatinghumancapitalishighandhasincreasedoverthepastdecade.

累積的人力資本的收益是高的，而且在過(guò)去的十年里一直在增加。Thereismuchvariationinearningsthatcannotbeexplainedbythingseconomistscanmeasure.

有許多收入差別不能用經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家可以衡量的事情來(lái)解釋。Summary小結(jié)ThereturntoaccumSummaryTheunexplainedvariationinearningsislargelyattributabletonaturalability,effort,andchance.Someeconomistsarguethatmore-educatedworkersearnhigherwagesbecauseworkerswithhighnaturalabilityuseeducationasawaytosignaltheirhighabilitytoemployers.SummaryTheunexplainedvariati小結(jié)收入中無(wú)法解釋的變異主要?dú)w因于天賦能力、努力和機(jī)遇。一些經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家提出，受教育更多的人得到更高工資并不是因?yàn)榻逃岣吡松a(chǎn)率，而是因?yàn)橛懈咛熨x能力的工人把教育作為向雇主表示他們高能力的信號(hào)。小結(jié)收入中無(wú)法解釋的變異主要?dú)w因于天賦能力、努力和機(jī)遇。SummaryWagesaresometimespushedabovetheequilibriumlevelbecauseofminimum-wagelaws,unions,andefficiencywages.Somedifferencesinearningsareattributabletodiscriminationonthebasisofrace,sex,orotherfactors.Whenmeasuringtheamountofdiscrimination,onemustcorrectfordifferencesinhumancapitalandjobcharacteristics.SummaryWagesaresometimespus小結(jié)有時(shí)工資會(huì)高于使勞動(dòng)供求平衡的水平，這是因?yàn)樽畹凸べY法、工會(huì)和效率工資。收入中的一些差別是由于基于種族、性別或其他因素的歧視。當(dāng)衡量歧視程度時(shí)，必需根據(jù)人力資本和工作特性的差別進(jìn)行矯正。小結(jié)有時(shí)工資會(huì)高于使勞動(dòng)供求平衡的水平，這是因?yàn)樽畹凸べY法、SummaryCompetitivemarketstendtolimittheimpactofdiscriminationonwages.Discriminationcanpersistincompetitivemarketsifcustomersarewillingtopaymoretodiscriminatoryfirms,orifthegovernmentpasseslawsrequiringfirmstodiscriminate.SummaryCompetitivemarketsten小結(jié)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。在下述情況下，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)上的歧視就會(huì)繼續(xù)下去如果顧客愿意為歧視企業(yè)支付的更多或者如果政府通過(guò)要求企業(yè)歧視的法律。小結(jié)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。EarningsandDiscrimination

收入與歧視Chapter19EarningsandDiscrimination

收DifferencesinEarningsintheU.S.Today

當(dāng)前美國(guó)的收入差距Thetypicalphysicianearnsabout$200,000ayear.

普通醫(yī)生一年賺到20萬(wàn)美元左右。

Thetypicalpoliceofficerearnsabout$50,000ayear.

普通警官一年賺到5萬(wàn)美元左右。Thetypicalfarmworkerearnsabout$20,000ayear.

普通農(nóng)業(yè)工人一年賺到2萬(wàn)美元左右。DifferencesinEarningsintheWhatcausesearningstovarysomuch?

什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？Wagesaregovernedbylaborsupplyandlabordemand.

工資由勞動(dòng)供給與勞動(dòng)需求決定。Labordemandreflectsthemarginalproductivityoflabor.

勞動(dòng)需求反映了勞動(dòng)的邊際生產(chǎn)率。WhatcausesearningstovarysWhatcausesearningstovarysomuch?

什么原因造成個(gè)人收入差距如此之大？Inequilibrium,eachworkerispaidthevalueofhisorhermarginalcontributiontotheeconomy’sproductionofgoodsandservices.

在均衡時(shí)，每個(gè)工人都得到了他對(duì)經(jīng)濟(jì)中物品與勞務(wù)生產(chǎn)的邊際貢獻(xiàn)的價(jià)值。WhatcausesearningstovarysSomeDeterminantsofEquilibriumWages

決定均衡工資的若干因素Compensatingdifferentials

補(bǔ)償性差別工資Humancapital人力資本Ability,effort,andchance

能力、努力和機(jī)遇Signaling信號(hào)Thesuperstarphenomenon

超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象SomeDeterminantsofEquilibriCompensatingDifferentialsCompensatingdifferentialsrefertodifferencesinwagesthatarisesfromnonmonetarycharacteristics

ofdifferentjobs.Coalminersarepaidmorethanotherswithsimilarlevelsofeducation.Nightshiftworkersarepaidmorethandayshiftworkers.Professorsarepaidlessthanlawyersanddoctors.CompensatingDifferentialsComp補(bǔ)償性差別工資補(bǔ)償性差別工資是指不同工作的非貨幣特性所引起的工資差別。煤礦工人得到的工資高于其他有相似教育水平的工人。夜班工人的工資高于同類白班工人。教授的工資低于受教育時(shí)間大致相同的律師和醫(yī)生。補(bǔ)償性差別工資補(bǔ)償性差別工資是指不同工作的非貨幣特性所引起HumanCapital人力資本Humancapitalistheaccumulationofinvestmentsinpeople.

人力資本——對(duì)人的教育和在職培訓(xùn)投資的積累。Themostimportanttypeofhumancapitaliseducation.

最主要的人力資本是教育。HumanCapital人力資本HumancapitHumanCapitalEducationrepresentsanexpenditureofresourcesatonepointintimetoraiseproductivityinthefuture.Bytheyear2000,amanwithacollegedegreeearnedmorethan89percentmorethanwithoutone.Womenshoweda70percentincreaseinearningsduetoacollegedegree.HumanCapitalEducationreprese人力資本教育代表著為了提高未來(lái)生產(chǎn)率而在某一時(shí)點(diǎn)的資源支出。2000年，一個(gè)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人的平均收入比沒(méi)有大學(xué)學(xué)位的男人多89％。對(duì)于婦女來(lái)說(shuō)，上大學(xué)的報(bào)酬高出70％。人力資本教育代表著為了提高未來(lái)生產(chǎn)率而在某一時(shí)點(diǎn)的資源支出Table1AverageAnnualEarnings

byEducationalAttainmentCopyright?2004South-WesternTable1AverageAnnualEarning表1.受教育者的平均年收入Copyright?2004South-Western1980年2000年男人高中，未上大學(xué)36430美元36770美元大學(xué)畢業(yè)52492美元69421美元大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn)＋44％+89%婦女高中，未上大學(xué)14953美元17898美元大學(xué)畢業(yè)23170美元35431美元大學(xué)水平的額外百分點(diǎn)＋55％+98%注釋：收入數(shù)據(jù)根據(jù)通貨膨脹進(jìn)行了調(diào)整，并用2000年美元表示。表1.受教育者的平均年收入Copyright?2004Whyhasthegapinearningsbetweenskilledandunskilledworkersrisen

inrecentyears?Internationaltradehasalteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Changesintechnologyhavealteredtherelativedemandforskilledandunskilledlabor.Whyhasthegapinearningsbe為什么近年熟練工人與非熟練工人之間的

收入差距擴(kuò)大了呢？國(guó)際貿(mào)易改變了對(duì)熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。技術(shù)變革改變了熟練勞動(dòng)與非熟練勞動(dòng)的相對(duì)需求。為什么近年熟練工人與非熟練工人之間的

收入差距擴(kuò)大了呢？國(guó)際Ability,Effort,andChanceNaturalabilityisimportantforworkersinalloccupations.Manypersonalcharacteristicsdeterminehowproductiveworkersareand,therefore,playaroleindeterminingthewagestheyearn.Ability,Effort,andChanceNat能力、努力和機(jī)遇對(duì)所有職業(yè)的工人來(lái)說(shuō)，天賦能力都是重要的。許多個(gè)人特點(diǎn)決定了工人的勞動(dòng)生產(chǎn)率，因此這些特點(diǎn)在決定工人所掙得的工資水平上起著重要作用。能力、努力和機(jī)遇對(duì)所有職業(yè)的工人來(lái)說(shuō)，天賦能力都是重要的。AnAlternativeViewofEducation:Signaling

教育的另一種觀點(diǎn)：信號(hào)Firmsuseeducationalattainmentasawayofsortingbetweenhigh-abilityandlow-abilityworkers.

企業(yè)把教育狀況作為區(qū)分高能力工人與低能力工人的一種方法。Itisrationalforfirmstointerpretacollegedegreeasasignal

ofability.企業(yè)把大學(xué)學(xué)位解釋為能力的信號(hào)是合理的。AnAlternativeViewofEducatiTheSuperstarPhenomenonSuperstars

ariseinmarketsthatexhibitthefollowingcharacteristics:Everycustomerinthemarketwantstoenjoythegoodsuppliedbythebestproducer.Thegoodisproducedwithatechnologythatmakesitpossibleforthebestproducertosupplyeverycustomeratalowcost.TheSuperstarPhenomenonSupers超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象超級(jí)明星

產(chǎn)生在有兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)的市場(chǎng)上：市場(chǎng)上每位顧客都想享受最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者提供的物品。使最優(yōu)生產(chǎn)者以低成本向每位顧客提供物品成為可能的是生產(chǎn)這種物品所用的技術(shù)。超級(jí)明星現(xiàn)象超級(jí)明星產(chǎn)生在有兩個(gè)特點(diǎn)的市場(chǎng)上：Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWagesWhyaresomeworkers’wagessetabovethelevelthatbringssupplyanddemandintoequilibrium?Minimum-wagelawsMarketpoweroflaborunionsEfficiencywagesAbove-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資為什么一些工人的工資確定在高于使勞動(dòng)供求均衡的水平上？最低工資法工會(huì)的市場(chǎng)勢(shì)力效率工資高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資為什么一些工人的工資Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages

UnionsAunion

isaworkerassociationthatbargainswithemployersoverwagesandworkingconditions.StrikeAstrike

referstotheorganizedwithdrawaloflaborfromafirmbyaunion.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資工會(huì)工會(huì)——

與雇主談判工資和工作條件的工人協(xié)會(huì)。罷工罷工——工會(huì)有組織地從企業(yè)撤出勞動(dòng)。高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資工會(huì)Above-EquilibriumWages:Minimum-WageLaws,Unions,andEfficiencyWages

EfficiencyWagesThetheoryofefficiencywages

holdsthatafirmcanfinditprofitabletopayhighwagesbecausedoingsoincreasestheproductivityofitsworkers.Highwagesmay:reduceworkerturnover.increaseworkereffort.raisethequalityofworkersthatapplyforjobsatthefirm.Above-EquilibriumWages:Minim高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資效率工資效率工資

認(rèn)為，企業(yè)會(huì)發(fā)現(xiàn)支付高工資是有利的，因?yàn)檫@樣做提高了工人的生產(chǎn)率。

高工資會(huì):減少工人的流動(dòng)性；提高工人的努力程度；提高適應(yīng)企業(yè)的工人素質(zhì)。高于均衡工資:最低工資法、工會(huì)和效率工資效率工資TheEconomicsofDiscriminationDiscriminationoccurswhenthemarketplaceoffersdifferentopportunitiestosimilarindividualswhodifferonlybyrace,ethnicgroup,sex,age,orotherpersonalcharacteristics.TheEconomicsofDiscriminatio歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)當(dāng)市場(chǎng)向那些僅僅是種族、宗教、性別、年齡或其他個(gè)人特征不同的相似個(gè)人提供了不同的機(jī)會(huì)時(shí)，就出現(xiàn)了歧視。歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)當(dāng)市場(chǎng)向那些僅僅是種族、宗教、性別、年齡或其他個(gè)人TheEconomicsofDiscrimination

歧視經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)Althoughdiscriminationisanemotionallychargedtopic,economiststrytostudythetopicobjectivelyinordertoseparatemythfromreality.雖然歧視是一個(gè)經(jīng)常引起激烈爭(zhēng)論的情緒化話題，但經(jīng)濟(jì)學(xué)家力圖客觀地研究這個(gè)題目，以便把假象與真實(shí)分開(kāi)。TheEconomicsofDiscriminatioMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Discriminationisoftenmeasuredbylookingattheaveragewagesofdifferentgroups.常常通過(guò)觀察不同群體的平均工資差別來(lái)衡量勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上的歧視程度。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Eveninalabormarketfreeofdiscrimination,differentpeoplehavedifferentwages.即使在一個(gè)沒(méi)有歧視的勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上，不同人的工資也不同。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Peopledifferintheamountof

humancapital

theyhaveandinthekindsofworktheyarewillingandabletodo.人們擁有的人力資本量以及能夠并愿意從事的工作種類不同。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimination

勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量Simplyobservingdifferencesinwagesamongbroadgroups–whiteandblack,menandwomen–sayslittleabouttheprevalenceofdiscrimination.簡(jiǎn)單地觀察不同群體—白人與黑人、男人與女人—之間的工資差別并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明歧視的普遍性。MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrimTable2MedianAnnualEarningsbyRaceandSexCopyright?2004South-WesternTable2MedianAnnualEarningsTable2.不同種族與性別的平均收入Copyright?2004South-Western男人38870美元30403美元22％女人28080美元25107美元11％女人工資低28％17％（百分比）注釋：2000年數(shù)據(jù)。

白種人黑種人黑種人收入低（百分比）Table2.不同種族與性別的平均收入CopyrighMeasuringLabor-MarketDiscriminationBecausethedifferencesinaveragewagesamonggroupsinpartreflectdifferencesinhumancapitalandjobcharacteristics,theydonotbythemselvessayanythingabouthowmuchdiscriminationthereisinthelabormarket.MeasuringLabor-MarketDiscrim勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量由于不同群體之間平均工資的差別部分反映了人力資本和工作特性的差別，這些差別本身對(duì)勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)上有多大歧視并沒(méi)有說(shuō)明什么。勞動(dòng)市場(chǎng)歧視的衡量由于不同群體之間平均工資的差別部分反映了人DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇主的歧視行為Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillhavelowerlaborcostswhentheyhiretheemployeesdiscriminatedagainst.當(dāng)不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)雇傭受歧視的雇員時(shí)，這些企業(yè)的勞動(dòng)成本更低。DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇主的歧視行為Nondiscriminatoryfirmswilltendtoreplacefirmsthatdiscriminate.不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)取代了進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)。DiscriminationbyEmployers

雇DiscriminationbyEmployersCompetitivemarketstendtolimittheimpactofdiscriminationonwages.Firmsthatdonotdiscriminatewillbemoreprofitablethanthosefirmsthatdodiscriminate.DiscriminationbyEmployersCo雇主的歧視行為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。不進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)將比進(jìn)行歧視的企業(yè)更具有贏利性。雇主的歧視行為競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性市場(chǎng)傾向于限制歧視對(duì)工資的影響。DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernmentsAlthoughtheprofitmotiveisastrongforceactingtoeliminatediscriminatorywagedifferentials,therearelimitstoitscorrectiveabilities.CustomerpreferencesGovernmentpoliciesDiscriminationbyCustomersa顧客與政府的歧視行為雖然利潤(rùn)動(dòng)機(jī)是消除歧視性工資差別的一種強(qiáng)大力量，但也存在著針對(duì)這種力量的矯正能力的限制。顧客偏好政府政策顧客與政府的歧視行為雖然利潤(rùn)動(dòng)機(jī)是消除歧視性工資差別的一種強(qiáng)DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernmentsCustomerpreferences:

Ifcustomershavediscriminatorypreferences,acompetitivemarketisconsistentwithadiscriminatorywagedifferential.Thiswillhappenwhencustomersarewillingtopaytomaintainthediscriminatorypractice.DiscriminationbyCustomersa顧客與政府的歧視行為顧客偏好:

如果顧客有歧視偏好，競(jìng)爭(zhēng)性企業(yè)就與歧視性工資差別相一致。這種情況只有在顧客愿意為他們的歧視性行為付出代價(jià)時(shí)才會(huì)發(fā)生。顧客與政府的歧視行為顧客偏好:DiscriminationbyCustomersandGovernments

顧客與政府的歧視行為Governmentpolicies:

Whenthegovernmentmandatesdiscriminatorypracticesorrequiresfirmstodiscriminate,thismayalsoleadtodiscriminatorywagedifferentials.政府政策：當(dāng)政府命令實(shí)行歧視性作法或者要求企業(yè)進(jìn)行歧視時(shí)，將會(huì)導(dǎo)致歧視性工資差別。DiscriminationbyCustomersaTheDebateOverComparableWorth

關(guān)于同工同酬的爭(zhēng)論Accordingtothedoctrineofcomparableworth,jobsdeemedcomparableshouldbepaidthesamewage.根據(jù)同工同酬學(xué)說(shuō)，可以相比的工作應(yīng)該