27037語言學(xué)概論復(fù)習(xí)精華

精選精選27037語言學(xué)概論復(fù)習(xí)精華第一章緒論填空題或選擇題Asymbolconsistsoftwoparts:aconcreteformandthemeaningwhichitconveys.一個符號由兩個部分組成：一個具體的形式和它所表達(dá)的意思。Bysayinglanguageisarbitrary,wemeanwecan’tgiveasoundreasonwhysuchaformispronouncedinthiswayratherthaninthatway,andwhyaparticularmeaningshouldbeindicatedbythisformratherthanbythatform..當(dāng)說語言是任Languagehastwolevels.Theyaregrammaticallymeaningfullevelandsoundmeaninglesslevel.語言有兩個層次：語法上有意義的層次和聲音上無意義的層次。Human languages have such design features asproductivity

,displacement

,arbitrariness ,culturaltransmission,dualityandinterchangeability.人類語言具有以下的甄別性特征：能產(chǎn)性，離散性，不受時(shí)空限制的特性，任意性，文化傳遞性，雙重性和互換性。Languageisasystembecauseeverylanguageconsistsofasetofruleswhichunderlieactualspeechorwriting 語言是一種體系，因?yàn)槊糠N語言都是由一套規(guī)則組成的，這些規(guī)則表明了人們的真正語言或書面形式。（2009年10月考題）Bysayinglanguageiscreative,wemeanthateverylanguagecontainsaninfinitenumberofsentences,which,howeveraregeneratedbyasmallsetofrulesandafinitesetofwords.當(dāng)說語言具有創(chuàng)造性的時(shí)候，我們指每種語言都包括無數(shù)的句子，而這些句子由有限的規(guī)則和有限的單詞所構(gòu)造的。第二章語言學(xué)填空題或選擇題AccordingtoJohnLyons,generallinguisticsdealswithlanguageingeneralanddescriptivelinguistics（描寫語言學(xué)）isconcernedwithoneparticularlanguage（2009年10月考題）IndeSaussureterm,languereferstothesystemoflanguageandparolereferstothespeech.根據(jù)索緒爾的定義，語言指的是語言的體系，而言語指的是說（200910）Phonologyisthesciencethatdealswiththesoundsystem.音位學(xué)是研究語音系統(tǒng)的科學(xué)。Syntaxstudiestwokindsofrules:phrasestructurerulesandtransformationalrules.句法學(xué)研究兩種規(guī)則：短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則和轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則。AccordingtoChomsky,competenceis“thespeaker-hearerknowledgeofhislanguageperformanceis“theactualuseoflanguageinconcretesituations”.根據(jù)喬姆斯基，語言能力是語言使用者所具有的知識，而語言運(yùn)用是這種知識在具體情況下的實(shí)際運(yùn)用。Langueorcompetenceisabstractandnotdirectlyobserved,whileparoleorperformanceisconcreteanddirectlyobservable.語言或者語言能力是抽象的，是不能直接觀察的，而言語或者語言語用是具體的，是能直接觀察的。Thescientificmethodinvolvesfourdata,formingahypothesisthehypothesisdrawingconclusions料，提出假設(shè)，驗(yàn)證假設(shè)，得出結(jié)論。Saussureisthefatherofmodernlinguistics.Thesynchronicstudyofalanguageisconcernedwitha“state”ofalanguageataparticularpointoftime.語言的共時(shí)性研究關(guān)注的是處于某一時(shí)間點(diǎn)的語言所做的描述。Asyntagmaticrelation（橫組合關(guān)系）referstothesequentialcharacteristicofspeech.橫組合關(guān)系指的是語言的序列特點(diǎn)。Phonologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker’sintuitionaboutthesoundsandsoundpatternsofhislanguage.音位知識是當(dāng)?shù)卣Z言者關(guān)于他語言的語音和語音模式的知識。Morphologicalknowledgeisanativespeaker’sintuitionabouthowawordisformed.形態(tài)學(xué)知識是當(dāng)?shù)卣Z言者關(guān)于單詞是如何形成的知識。Syntacticknowledgeisanativespeakerintuitionaboutwhetherasentenceisgrammaticalornot.句法知識是當(dāng)?shù)卣Z言者關(guān)于一個句子是否合乎語法的知識。Semanticknowledgeisanativespeaker’sintuitionaboutthemeaningoflanguage,includingmeaningofwordsandmeaningofsentences.語義知識是當(dāng)?shù)卣Z言者關(guān)于語言意義的知識，包括單詞意義和句子意義。Phoneticsisthestudyofspeechsoundsofallhuman語音學(xué)是對所有人類（200910）Morphologyexamineswordformationandtheinternalstructureofwords.形態(tài)學(xué)研究的是單詞的構(gòu)成和單詞的內(nèi)在結(jié)構(gòu)。Syntaxisconcernedwithhowwordsarecombinedtoformphrasesandhowphrasesarecombinedbyrulestoformsentences.句法學(xué)關(guān)注單詞是如何組合成短語以及短語是如何通過規(guī)則形成句子的。Semanticsisthestudyofthemeaningofwordsandsentences語義學(xué)是對單詞和句子的意義研究。(20101Adiachronicstudyisconcernedwiththehistoricaldevelopmentofalanguageoveraperiodoftime. 歷時(shí)性研究關(guān)注的是語言經(jīng)過一定時(shí)間階段所發(fā)生的歷史變化。Aparadigmaticrelationisarelationbetweenalinguisticelementinanutteranceand linguistic elements outside that utterance, but belonging to the sub-systemofthelanguage 縱聚合關(guān)系是話語中的一種語言成分和話語之外的語言成（200910）第三章語音學(xué)填空題或選擇題Phoneticshasthreesub-branches:acousticphonetics,auditoryphoneticsandarticulatoryphonetics.語音學(xué)有三種分支：聲學(xué)語音學(xué)，聽覺語音學(xué)和發(fā)音語音學(xué)。Thevocaltract（發(fā)音系統(tǒng)）canbedividedintotwopartstheoralcavityandnasalcavity.發(fā)音系統(tǒng)可以被分成兩種：口腔和鼻腔。Aconsonantisaspeechsoundinwhichtheair-streamfromthelungsiseithercompletelyblockedorpartiallyorwheretheopeningissonarrowthattheairescapeswithaudiblefrication.Avowelisusuallyproducedwithvibrationofthevocalcords.輔音是發(fā)音的時(shí)候從肺部呼出的氣流要么是全部阻塞或者部分阻塞，出氣口過窄以至于可以聽到摩擦的聲音。一個元音一般是通過聲帶振動所形成的。Articulatoryphoneticsisconcernedwithhowasoundisproducedbythevocalorgans.發(fā)音語音學(xué)研究聲音是如何通過發(fā)音器官形成的。Acousticphoneticsdealswithhowasoundistransmittedfromthespeaker’smouthtothelistener’sears.聲學(xué)語音學(xué)研究聲音是如何從說話者的口中傳入聽話者（200910）Auditoryphoneticsinvestigateshowasoundisperceivedbythelistener.聽覺語音學(xué)研究聲音是如何被聽話者所接收的。(20101Accordingtothepositionofthevelumconsonantsaredividedintooralconsonantsandnasalconsonants.根據(jù)軟腭的位置，輔音被分成口腔輔音和鼻腔輔音。Theproductionofastopconsistsofthreestages:closurestage,holdstageandreleasestage.一個塞音或者閉止音的形成包括三個階段：閉合階段，保持階段和釋放階段。Theraisingofthesoftpalatecausestheproductionoforalconsonantswhiletheloweringofthesoftpalatebringsabouttheproductionofnasalconsonants. 的上提會導(dǎo)致口腔輔音的形成，而軟腭的下降會導(dǎo)致鼻腔輔音的形成。InEnglish,therearethreenasalconsonants.Theyarem,n,n mnn.goeerefld聲帶振動econsonantscanbeclassifiedintotwogroups:voicedconsonantsandvoicelessconsonants.根據(jù)聲帶振動的有無，英語輔音可以被分成兩種：濁輔音和清輔音。Intermsofliprounding,vowelsareclassifiedintoroundedvowelsandunroundedvowels.根據(jù)口形，元音被分成圓唇元音和非圓唇元音。Thespacebetweenthevocalcordsiscalledglottis.聲帶中間的位置被稱為聲門。Whenthevocalcordsarespreadapart,theair-streamisnotblockedattheglottisanditpassesfreelyintothevocal聲帶系統(tǒng)）withoutvocal-cord聲帶振動）.Thesoundsproducedinthiswayarecalledvoicelessconsonants.當(dāng)聲帶被分開，氣流在聲門處沒有阻礙，并且沒有經(jīng)過聲帶振動就自由進(jìn)入到發(fā)音系統(tǒng)，以這種方式所發(fā)出的音被稱為清輔音。Whenthevocalcordsarenearlytouchingeachotherbutnotcompletelyclosed,theair-streampassingthroughtheglottishastocausevibration.Thesoundsmadeinthiswayarecalledvoicedconsonants. 當(dāng)聲帶幾乎要合但是沒有完全合閉，從聲門所（200910）Stopscanbedividedintotwotypesoralstopsandnasalstops.塞音或者閉止音可以分成兩種：口腔閉止音和鼻腔閉止音。Accordingtothestateofthevelum,vowelsaredividedintooralvowelsandnasalvowels. 根據(jù)軟腭的狀態(tài)，元音被分成口腔元音和鼻腔元音。InEnglish,nasalvowelsoccuronlybeforenasalconsonants,andoralvowelsbeforeoralconsonants在英語中，鼻腔元音只發(fā)生在鼻腔輔音之前，而口腔元音發(fā)生在口腔輔音之前。(20101InEnglish,allthebackvowelsexcept[a:]areroundedvowels.在英語中，除了[a:]之外所有的后元音都是圓唇音。Intermsoftongueposition,vowelscanbeclassifiedintofront,central,back,high,midandlowvowels根據(jù)舌頭的位置，元音可以分成前元音，（200910）(20101第四章音位學(xué)填空題或選擇題EnglishphonologyinvestigatesthesoundsystemofEnglish.ItisdifferentfromEnglishphonetics,whichisconcernedwiththespeechsoundsthatoccursintheEnglishlanguage.Englishphonologystudiestheabstractaspectsthefunctionsofsoundsandthesoundcombinationpatterns.英語音位學(xué)研究的是英語的語音系研究是抽象的方面：聲音的功能和聲音的組合方式。Aphonemeisdefinedasaminimaldistinctiveunitinthesoundsystemofalanguage.（2009年10）Twoformsareaminimalpairwhentheymeetthreeconditions:1)theyaredifferentinmeaning,2)theydifferonlyinonesoundsegment,3)thedifferentsoundsoccurinthesamepositioninthestrings.Whenagroupofwordsmeetallthethreeconditions,theyarecalledaminimalset.當(dāng)兩種形式符合三種條件他們就是最小對立不同的語音在同一個位置。當(dāng)一組單詞滿足這三個條件，他們就是最小對立集。Therearethreetypesofdistribution:contrastivedistribution,complementarydistributionandfreevariation (20101Iftwoormoresoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundforanotherbringsaboutachangeofmeaningtheyarein distribution. 如果兩個或者更多的音在同一種環(huán)境下能夠發(fā)生，并且一個語音代替另一個語音會產(chǎn)生意義的改變，他們就是對比分布。Iftwoormoresoundsneverappearinthesameenvironment,theyaresaidtobeincomplementarydistribution.如果兩個或者更多的音從不會在同一種環(huán)境下發(fā)生，他（200910）Iftwosoundscanoccurinthesameenvironmentandthesubstitutionofonesoundfortheotherdoesnotcauseachangeofmeaning,thentheyaresaidtobeinfreevariation.Thedistinctivefeaturesarethefeaturesthatcancontrastwords.甄別性特征或者區(qū)別性特征是能夠區(qū)別單詞的特征。Distinctivefeaturesareusedtodescribephonemes,whilephoneticfeatures（語音特征）areusedtodescribetheirallophones.區(qū)別性特征是用來描述音位的，而語音特征是用來描述他們的音位變體的。Thedistinctivefeatureswhichcanonlyhaveaneffectononesoundsegmentarecalledsegmentalfeatures.只對一種聲音切分有影響的區(qū)別性特征被稱為切分特征。（2009年10月考題）Thedistinctivefeaturesthatcanaffectmorethanonesoundsegmentandcanalsocontrastmeaningarecalledsuprasegmentalfeatures.Therearethreekindsofthemstress,intonationandjuncture.能夠影響的不止一個語音切分，而且能區(qū)別意義的區(qū)別性特征被稱為超切分特征。超切分特征有三種，重音，音調(diào)和連音或者音渡。Thepositionofstresscanbringaboutachangeofmeaninginaword重音的位置會導(dǎo)致單詞意義的變化。Tonelanguagesarelanguagesthatusepitchtocontrastmeaningatwordlevel,whereasintonationlanguagesarelanguagesthatusepitchtodistinguishdifferentmeaningsatphraselevelorsentencelevel.聲調(diào)語言是在單詞的水平上用音Juncturereferstothephoneticboundaryfeaturesthatmaymarkgrammaticalunitssuchaswordandclause.連音是指能夠表示諸如單詞和從句等語法單位的語音分界特（200910）Ifweareinterestedinthe phoneticunitsofaword,theresultingtranscriptionisbroad , if we are only interested in its distinctive features ,the transcriptionisnarrow如果我們對一個單詞的語音單位感興趣，那么音標(biāo)就是寬式的，如果我們只對它的區(qū)別性特征感興趣，那么音標(biāo)就是嚴(yán)式的。Thefunctionofphonologicalrulesistochangeaphonemic音位音標(biāo)）intoitsphonetictranscription（語音音標(biāo)音位規(guī)則的功能是將音位音標(biāo)改變?yōu)檎Z音音標(biāo)。第五章形態(tài)學(xué)填空題或選擇題Semantically,morphemescanbegroupedintoroots and affixes 講，詞素可以分成詞根和詞綴。Morphology isasciencethatexamineswordformationandtheinternalstructureofwords. 形態(tài)學(xué)是一門研究單詞的構(gòu)成和單詞的內(nèi)在結(jié)構(gòu)的科學(xué)。Amorphemeisdefinedasaminimal meaningfulunitinthegrammaticalsystemofalanguage.詞素被定義為語言的語法體系中最小的意義單位。（2009年10月考題）Structurally,morphemes fall intotwo kinds: freemorphemes and morphemes 從結(jié)構(gòu)上來講，詞素分為兩種：自由詞素和黏附詞素。Theroot isthemostimportantpartofawordthatcarriestheprincipalmeaning.詞根是一個帶有主要意義的單詞中最重要的部分。Affixes arelexicallydependentonrootsanddonotconveythefundamentalmeaningofwords. 詞綴在詞義上是依賴詞根的，不表達(dá)單詞的重要意思。Freemorphemesarethosethatcanstandbythemselvesasindividualwords. 詞素是那些能夠獨(dú)立作為單詞存在的詞素。Bound morphemesareneverfoundaloneaswords,butarealwaysjoinedwithothermorphemes.（0910）(20101Intermsofposition,wemaydivideaffixesintoprefixesandsuffixes andinfixes. 就位置而言，我們可以把詞綴分為前綴，后綴和中綴。(20101According to function, we can classify affixes into inflectional affixes andderivationalaffixes.根據(jù)功能，我們能將詞綴分成屈折詞綴和派生詞綴。Morphsarerelatedtomorphemesingeneral,whileallomorphs（語素變體）arealwaysrelatedtoaspecificmorpheme.語子或形素與整體的語素有關(guān)，而語素變體總是跟某一特定的語素有關(guān)。(20101Iftwoormoremorphsaresemanticallyidenticalandalsoincomplementarydistribution,theyaresaidtobeinallomorphsofthesamemorpheme.如果兩個或（2009年10月考題）Amorphthathasformbutnomeaningiscalledaemptymorphwhileamorphthathasmeaningbutnoformiscalledazeromorph.具有形式但是沒有意義的語子或形素被稱為空語子。而具有意義但是沒有形式的語子或形素被稱為零語子。Therearetwokindsofrelationsbetweenthemorphemeswithinaword:linearorderandhierarchicalorder.在一個單詞的語素之間存在兩種關(guān)系：線性結(jié)構(gòu)和層次結(jié)構(gòu)。IntheICAnalysisofawordtheformsatthebottomofthetree-branchdiagramarecalledultimateconstituents ,whichareindividualmorphemesandthereforecannotbefurtherdividedintosmallerparts. 在一個單詞的直接成分分析中，在樹形圖底（200910月考題）Alltheformsinatree-branchdiagram,excepttheworditselfatthetop,aretheconstituentsoftheword.在樹形圖的所有形式中，除了頂部的單詞本身，都是單詞的成分。(20101Theconstituentswhichareinvolveddirectlyinformingalargerconstituentarecalledtheimmediateconstituents/ICsofthelargerform.涉及直接形成一個更大成分的成分叫做直接成分。Morphologicalrulesaretherulesthatdeterminehowmorphemesarecombinedtoformnewwords.形態(tài)學(xué)規(guī)則是指決定詞素是如何組合形成新的單詞的規(guī)則。Whenanewwordisformedbyputtinganaffixtothebase,theprocessinvolvediscalledaffixation.為詞綴法。Freemorphemescanbefurthergroupedintolexical morphemesandfunctionalmorphemes.自由語素可以進(jìn)一步分成詞匯語素和功能語素。Generally,affixationinEnglishmaybefurtherdividedintotwotypes: prefixationandsuffixation.一般而言，在英文中詞綴法可以進(jìn)一步分為兩種：前綴法和后綴法。Somenewwordsarecreatedsimplybychangingtheirpartsofspeech.Theprocessinvolvediscalledconversion.一些新單詞只是通過改變他們的詞性而創(chuàng)造的，這種過程被稱為轉(zhuǎn)類法。Iftwoormoreseparatewordsareconjoinedtoproduceaformwhichisusedasasingleword,thecombiningprocessisknownascompounding 1Blendingisaprocessinwhichacompoundismadebydeletingandcombiningpartsoftwowords.混合法是一種通過刪除或者合并兩個單詞的部分而構(gòu)成一個復(fù)合詞（200910）Clipping referstotheprocesswherebyawordisshortenedwithoutachangeinthemeaningandinthepartofspeech略寫法或者截短法指的是不改變意思和詞性而將一個單詞加以簡略的構(gòu)詞過程。Acronymy istheprocessbywhichwordsareformedbyputtingtheinitiallettersofseveralwordstogether 的過程。Byback-formation ,wedeleteasuffixfromanapparentlycomplexforminsteadofaddingasuffixItmayberegardedastheoppositecaseofsuffixation.通過逆序Inflectionalaffixesservetoindicategrammaticalrelations,suchasnumber,gender,tense,aspect,caseanddegree.屈折詞綴或者屈折詞素，表現(xiàn)的是語法關(guān)系，如數(shù)、性、時(shí)態(tài)、態(tài)、格和級。(20101第六章句法學(xué)填空題或選擇題Sentencescanbestudiedintwoways:staticallywemakestructuraldescriptionsofsentencestoillustratethepartsofsentencesandtherelationshipsamongthem:;dynamically,weexaminetheprocessbywhichsentencesaregeneratedbysyntacticrules.（2009年10）Syntaxisasciencethatisconcernedwithhowwordsarecombinedtoformphrasesandhowphrasesarecombinedbyrulestoformsentences.句法學(xué)指的是研究單詞是如何構(gòu)成短語以及短語是如何通過規(guī)則組合形成句子的。Thesequential/syntagmaticrelationreferstothelinearorderingofthewordsandthephraseswithinasentence序列關(guān)系或者橫組合關(guān)系指的是在一個句子中單詞和短語的線性次序。Thesubstitutional/paradigmaticrelationisakindofrelationbetweenlinguisticformsinasentenceandlinguisticformsoutsidethesentence.替代關(guān)系或者縱聚合關(guān)系是句子中語言形式和句子外語言形式之間的一種關(guān)系。（2009年10月考題）Thelinguisticformsthathavesubstitutional/paradigmaticrelationsbelongtothesamesyntacticcategory（句法類型，句法范疇）.有替代關(guān)系或者縱聚合關(guān)系的語言形式屬于同一種句法類型或句法范疇。(20101Syntacticcategoriescanbefurtherdividedintotwogroupslexicalcategory（詞匯范疇）,suchasNounandVerb;non-lexicalcategory,suchasSentence,NounPhraseandVerbPhrase.句法類型可以進(jìn)一步分成兩種：詞匯范疇，比如名詞和動詞。非詞匯范疇，比如句子、名詞短語和動詞短語。Thehierarchical等級關(guān)系）showsustheinnerlayeringofsentences等級關(guān)系為我們表明了句子的內(nèi)部層次。Inahierarchicalstructurediagramofasentence,therearethreedistinctlevelsorhierarchies:sentencelevelwhichisthehighest;wordlevel whichisthelowestlevelwhichisinbetween.在一個句子層次結(jié)構(gòu)圖中，有三種明顯的層次或者等級，最高的句子層次，最低的單詞層次和處于中間的短語層次。Inahierarchicalstructurediagramofa sentence,theformsattheword-levelareultimateconstituents ofthesentence;theformsattheword-levelandthephrase-levelaretheconstituents ofthesentence;theconstituentsconnectedbythetwolinesthatarebranchingfromthesamepointarecalledtheimmediateconstituents oftheformabovethatpoint 在一個句子的層次結(jié)構(gòu)圖中，位于單詞條線連接的成分叫做直接成分。(20101Thesamephraseorsentencemayhavetwoormoreinterpretationdependingonthehierarchicalarrangementofitsconstituents.Suchacaseiscalledstructuralambiguity.（結(jié)構(gòu)歧義）同一個短語或者句子可能有兩種或者更多的解釋，這取決于短語或句子成分的層次安排，這種例子被稱為結(jié)構(gòu)歧義。Eachbranchingpointinaphrasemarker（短語標(biāo)記法）iscalledanode.在短語標(biāo)記法中的每一個分叉點(diǎn)叫做結(jié)點(diǎn)。TGGrammar（轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法）claimsthatthestaticstudyofsentencesisonlyconcernedwithonelevelofstructure,i.e,surfacestructure,butthedynamicstudyofsentencesdealswithtwolevelsofstructure:bothsurfacestructureanddeepstructure.轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法強(qiáng)調(diào)句子的靜態(tài)研究只涉及一種結(jié)構(gòu)層次即表層結(jié)構(gòu)，但是句子的動態(tài)研究涉及兩種結(jié)構(gòu)層次，即表層結(jié)構(gòu)和深層結(jié)構(gòu)。TGGrammarhasassumedthattogeneratesentences,westartwithdeepstructuresandthentransformthemintosurfacestructures.轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法認(rèn)為為了構(gòu)造句子，我們首先以深層結(jié)構(gòu)開始，然后將它們轉(zhuǎn)換成表層結(jié)構(gòu)。(20101DeepstructuresaregeneratedbyPSrules,andsurfacestructuresarederivedfromtheirdeepstructuresbyTrules.深層結(jié)構(gòu)是由短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則構(gòu)成的，而表層結(jié)構(gòu)通過（200910）Asurfacestructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothelineararrangementofwordsastheyarepronounced.表層結(jié)構(gòu)最符合單詞的線性排列。Adeepstructurecorrespondsmostcloselytothemeaningfulgroupingofwords.深層結(jié)構(gòu)最符合單詞有意義的組合。（2009年10月考題）Asurfacestructureisrelativelyconcreteandgivestheformofasentenceasitisusedincommunication.表層結(jié)構(gòu)相對而言是具體的，它給出了在交流中一個句子的形式。Adeepstructureisabstractandgivesthemeaningofasentence.深層結(jié)構(gòu)是抽象的，是解釋句子意義的。TheconstituentwhichisalwayspresentontherightsideofthearrowinaPSruleiscalledacompulsoryconstituent.在短語結(jié)構(gòu)規(guī)則里總是出現(xiàn)在箭頭右邊的成分被稱為強(qiáng)制性成分。Inthedeepstructure,verbsalwaystakethebaseform.Thatistosay,atthelevelofdeepstructure,theinflectionalendingsdonotoccurtogetherwiththeverbs.Theyareseparatedfromtheverbsandarepartofaauxiliaryphrase.在深層起。它們與動詞是分開的，是輔助短語的一部分。Theverbsinverbphrasesarecalledmainverbs;theotherverbsarehelpingverbs.在動詞短語中的動詞是主要動詞，其它的動詞都是助動詞。InTGGrammar,anauxiliaryphraseconsistsoffourcomponents:tense,modalverbs,theperfectaspectandtheprogressiveaspect在轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法中，一個輔助短語有四部分組成：時(shí)態(tài)，情態(tài)動詞，完成體，進(jìn)行體。TogeneratethedeepstructureofanEnglishsentence,wealwaysstartwiththerule:SNPAUX.，為了構(gòu)造一個英語句子的深層結(jié)構(gòu)，我們總是以規(guī)則開始。Alltransformationalrulesperformthreekindsofoperations:rearrangingthesentenceelements;addinganewelementtothephrasemarker;deletinganelementfromthephrasemarker所有的轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則都執(zhí)行三種步驟：重組句子成分，在短語標(biāo)記中添加一個新的成分，從短語標(biāo)記中刪除一個成分。(2010年1月考題)Sometransformationalrulesareobligatoryandmanyareoptional.TheobligatoryT-ruleshavetobeappliedifwewanttoobtainwell-formedsentences.一些轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)性的轉(zhuǎn)換規(guī)則。Technicallyspeaking,aformalizedT-ruleconsistsoftwoparts:thestructuraldescriptionandthestructuralchange第七章語義學(xué)填空題或選擇題Semanticsisthestudyoflinguisticmeaning:themeaningofwords,phrasesandsentences.(20101月考題)Thedenotativemeaning（外延意義）ofalinguisticformistheperson,object,abstractnotion,event,orstatewhichthewordorsentencedenotesTheconnotationofalinguisticformhastodowithitsovertonesofmeaning,thatiswhatthelinguisticformsuggests.一種語言形式的隱涵意義與言外之意有關(guān)，也就是語言形式所暗示的意義。Therearethreetypesofconnotationwhichsuggestthespeaker’sdifferentattitudes:positiveconnotation,neutralconnotationandnegativeconnotation.義。Lexicalsemantics（詞匯語義學(xué)）isconcernedwithword/lexicalmeaning詞匯語義學(xué)與單詞意義有關(guān)。FollowingthetheoryofComponentialAnalysis（成分分析法）,wedefinethemeaningofawordasasetofsemanticfeaturesorsemanticcomponentswiththevalues:plus(+orminusTherelationshipbetweenthetermonthehigherlevelandtermsononelevelbelowissaidtobehyponymy.Itisakindofrelationshipbetweenhigherterm/generalterm/supe