大學(xué)英語課件ofstudy

/FrancisBaconOfStudies（弗朗西斯·培根的論學(xué)習(xí)）FrancisBaconOfStudies（弗朗西斯·培根的論學(xué)習(xí)）

這是英國語言大師培根（1561-1626）的一篇隨筆，文字精煉，含義深邃。

Studiesservefordelight,forornament,andforability.Theirchiefusefordelight,isinprivatenessandretiring;forornament,isindiscourse;andforability,isinthejudgementanddispositionofbusiness.

讀書足以怡情，足以傅彩，足以長才。其怡情也，最見于獨(dú)處幽居之時；其傅彩也，最見于高談闊論之中；其長才也，最見于處世判事之際。Forecpertandexecute,andperhapsjudgeofparticulars,onebyone;butthegeneralcounsels,andtheplotsandmarshallingofaffairs,comebestformthosethatarelearned.Tospendtoomuchtimeinstudiesissloth;tousethemtoomuchforornament,isaffectation;tomakejudgementwhollybytheirrules,isthehumourofascholar.

練達(dá)之士雖能分別處理細(xì)事或一一判別枝節(jié)，然縱觀統(tǒng)籌，全局策劃，則舍好學(xué)深思者莫屬。讀書費(fèi)時過多易惰，文采藻飾太盛則矯，全憑條文斷事乃學(xué)究故態(tài)。

Theyperfectnature,andareperfectecbyexperience:fornaturalabilitiesarelikenaturalplants,thatneedproyningbystudy;andstudiesthemselvesdogiveforthdirectionstoomuchatlarge,excepttheybeboundedinbyexperience.讀書補(bǔ)天然之不足，經(jīng)驗(yàn)又補(bǔ)讀書之不足，蓋天生才干猶如自然花草，讀書然后知如何修剪移接，而書中所示，如不以經(jīng)驗(yàn)范之，則又大而無當(dāng)。

Craftymencontemnstudies,simplemenadmirethem,andwisemenusethem;fortheyteachnottheirownuse;butthatisawisdomwithoutthem,andabovethem,wonbyobservation.

有一技之長者鄙讀書，無知者羨讀書，唯明智之士用讀書，然書并不以用處告人，用書之智不在書中，而在書外，全憑觀察得之。

Readnottocontradictandconfute;nortobelieveandtakeforgranted;nortofindtalkanddiscourse;buttoweighandconsider.

讀書時不可存心詰難讀者，不可盡信書上所言，亦不可只為尋章摘句，而應(yīng)推敲細(xì)思。

Somebooksaretobetasted,otherstobeswallowed,andsomefewtobechewedanddigested;thatis,somebooksaretobereadonlyinparts;otherstoberead,butnotcuriously;andsomefewtobereadwholly,andwithdiligenceandattention.Somebooksalsomaybereadbydeputy,andextractsmadeofthembyothers;butthatwouldbeonlyinthelessimportantarguments,andthemeanersortofbooks;elsedistilledbooksare,likecommondistilledwaters,flashythings.

書有可淺嘗者，有可吞食者，少數(shù)則須咀嚼消化。換言之，有只需讀其部分者，有只須大體涉獵者，少數(shù)則須全讀，讀時須全神貫注，孜孜不倦。書亦可請人代讀，取其所作摘要，但只限題材較次或價值不高者，否則書經(jīng)提煉猶如水經(jīng)蒸餾，淡而無味。

Readingmakethafullman；conferenceareadyman;andwritinganexactman.Andtherefore,ifamanwritelittle，hehadneedhaveagreatmemory;ifheconferlittle,hehadneedhaveapresentwit;andifhereadlittle,hehadneedhavemuchcunning,toseemtoknowthathedothnot.

maketh:make的第三人稱用法ready:即ready-witted，指敏于思考的能力。doth:do的第三人稱單數(shù)用法讀書使人充實(shí)，討論使人機(jī)智，筆記使人準(zhǔn)確。因此不常做筆記者須記憶力特強(qiáng)，不常討論者須天生聰穎，不常讀書者須欺世有術(shù)，始能無知而顯有知。

Historiesmakemenwise;poetswitty;themathematicssubtile;naturalphilosophydeep;moralgrave;logicandrhetoricabletocontend.Abeuntstudiainmorse.

讀史使人明智，讀詩使人靈秀，數(shù)學(xué)使人周密，科學(xué)使人深刻，倫理學(xué)使人莊重，邏輯修辭之學(xué)使人善辯；凡有所學(xué)，皆成性格。

Naythereisnostandorimpendimentinthewit,butmaybewroughtoutbyfitstudies:likeasdiseasesofthebodymayhaveappropriateexercises.Bowlingisgoodforthestoneandreins;shootingforthelungsandbreast;gentlewalkingforthestomach;ridingforthehead;andthelike.Soifaman’’switbewandering,lethimstudythemathematics;forindemonstrations,ifhiswitbecalledawayneversolittle,hemustbeginagain.Ifhiswitbenotapttodistinguishorfinddifferences,lethimstudytheschoolmen;fortheyarecyminisectores.Ifhebenotapttobeatovermatters,andtocalluponethingtoproveandillustrateanother,lethimstudythelawyers’’cases.Soeverydefectofthemindmayhaveaspecialreceipt.

人之才智但有滯礙，無不可讀適當(dāng)之書使之順暢，一如身體百病，皆可借相宜之運(yùn)動除之。滾球利睪腎，射箭利胸肺，慢步利腸胃，騎術(shù)利頭腦，諸如此類。如智力不集中，可令讀數(shù)學(xué)，蓋演題需全神貫注，稍有分散即須重演；如不能辯異，可令讀經(jīng)院哲學(xué)，蓋是輩皆吹毛求疵之人；如不善求同，不善以一物闡證另一物，可令讀律師之案卷。如此頭腦中凡有缺陷，皆有特效可醫(yī)。MottosbyBacon(培根格言錄）Beautyisassummerfruits,whichareeasytocorrupt,andcannotlast;andforthemostpartitmakesadissoluteyouth,andanagealittleoutofcountenance

美猶如盛夏的水果，是容易腐爛而難保持的，世上有許多美人，她們有過放蕩的青春，卻迎受著愧悔的晚年。Naturalabilitiesarelikenaturalplants,thatneedpruningbystudy;andstudiesthemselvesdogiveforthdirectionstoomuchatlarge,excepttheybeboundedinbyexperience.

天生的能力好像天然生成的植物，必須通過學(xué)習(xí)加以修整；然而學(xué)習(xí)本身如若不由實(shí)踐去約束，必然方向紛雜而漫無目的。Virtueislikearichstone,bestplainset

美德好比寶石，在樸素背景的襯托下反而更華麗。LordFrancisBacon,(1561-1626)

thefatherofexperimentalphilosophy,whosefatherhadbeenLordKeeper,andhimselfwasagreatmanyyearsLordChancellorunderKingJamesI.Nevertheless,amidsttheintriguesofaCourt,andtheaffairsofhisexaltedemployment(BecauseofbriberyandextortionhewassentencedbytheHouseofLordstopayafineofaboutfourhundredthousandFrenchlivres,tolosehispeerageandhisdignityofChancellor.),whichalonewereenoughtoengrosshiswholetime,heyetfoundsomuchleisureforstudyastomakehimselfagreatphilosopher,agoodhistorian,andanelegantwriter;andastillmoresurprisingcircumstanceisthathelivedinanageinwhichtheartofwritingjustlyandelegantlywaslittleknown,muchlesstruephilosophy.LordBacon,asisthefateofman,wasmoreesteemedafterhisdeaththaninhislifetime.HisenemieswereintheBritishCourt,andhisadmirerswereforeigners.

FrancisBacon(1561－1626)wasthefounderofEnglishmaterialistphilosophy(唯物主義哲學(xué))．HewasbornintothefamilyofSirNicholasBacon,keeperofthePrivySeal(御璽)toQueenElizabeth．TheboyearlywonthefavoroftheQueen．HewenttoCambridgeattwelveandaftergraduatingatsixteen,tookuplaw．Hesoonbecameoneofthemostsuccessfullawyersofthetime．Attwenty-threehebecameamemberoftheHouseofCommons(下議院)andhisjudgmentandeloquence(口才)madehimfamous．WhenJamesIcametoEngland，BaconobtainedoneimportantofficeafteranotheruntilhebecamelordChancellor(大法官)andwasmadeapeer(nobleman)in1618．Hewasanadmirablejudge,butinthecourseofrisinghehadmadeenemieswhochargedhimwithbribery(受賄)．Hewasconvicted(判罪)deprived(免去)ofhisoffice,finedandbanished(流放)fromLondonin1621．Fiveyearslater,hediedindisgrace(恥辱)．

FrancisBacon,lawyer,statesman,philosopherandmasterofEnglishtongue,isfamousnotonlyforhisphilosophicalworks,butalsoforhisessays．In1597hepublishedacollectionoftenessays,whichwereafterwardsincreasedtofifty-eight,includingthewell-knownone“OnReading”,whosetitleisactually“OfStudies”．Theseessayscoverawidevarietyofsubjects,suchaslove,truth,friendship,parentsandchildren,beauty,studies,youthandageandmanyothers．Theyhavewonpopularityforhisclearness,brevity(簡短)andforceofexpression．Manyofhissentenceshavebecomewiseoldsayings—“Menfeardeathaschildrenfeartogointhedark,”

“Readingmakesafullman;conferenceaready(敏捷的)man,andwritinganexactman”．培根被認(rèn)為是現(xiàn)代科學(xué)時代的始祖。他是第一個意識到科學(xué)技木能夠改造世界面貌的哲學(xué)家，熱情支持實(shí)驗(yàn)科學(xué)研究。

l561年，培棍生于倫敦。他是英國伊麗莎白女王時代一高級職員的長子。12歲入劍橋大學(xué)三一學(xué)院，但不久離開那里，沒有獲得大學(xué)畢業(yè)證書。16歲開始工作，隨英國駐注大使去巴黎在使館工作過一段時間。18歲時父親去世，沒留下什么錢，培根被迫去上學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)法律。21歲開始從事律師業(yè)。23歲時被選為英國下議院議員。伊麗莎白女王向議會提出增加稅收計(jì)劃，培根表示反對通過這個提案，女王因而討厭培根，培根成了伊西克斯的朋友和參謀。伊西克斯是個貪婪的貴族分子，同情培根，他決定發(fā)動反對伊麗莎白女王的政變。培根勸告他應(yīng)該忠于女王，但伊西克斯不聽，政變以失敗而告終。因?yàn)榕喔谝廖骺怂故軐徏氨慌兴佬桃话钢衅鹆四撤N作用，致使各階層人民對培根有些不滿情緒。

1603年，伊麗莎白女王去世，培根當(dāng)上繼任國王詹姆斯一世的顧問，雖然詹姆斯—世沒有受培根勸言的約束，但卻很喜歡他。因此在詹姆斯一世執(zhí)政期間，培根平步青云，節(jié)節(jié)高升，1617年擔(dān)任掌璽大臣，1618年就任大法官，1620年受封為子爵。

不期災(zāi)難降臨了。培根被指控受賄，其實(shí)受賄在當(dāng)時已是司空見慣，絕非新鮮，但培根在議會里的勁敵抓住這個機(jī)會，將他趕出了官場。培根對受賄供認(rèn)不諱，被判在倫敦塔坐牢，交付大批罰金，終生禁止做官。但國王釋放了他，免除了他的罰金，培根只不過喪失了政治生命。培根這樣評論議會決定：“我是英國50年來最公正的法官，而議會對我的判決是200年來議會所作出的最公正的判決。”

培根的若干著作為他贏得了聲譽(yù)。他的第一部著作《論說文集》發(fā)表于1597年。這部著作用辛辣評論風(fēng)格寫成，但卻閃閃發(fā)光，引入入勝，在世界流傳極廣。即本精品文摘。

培根的最偉大的哲學(xué)著作之一名叫《偉大的復(fù)興》。該著作包括6個部分，已完成的部分有：序言、《新工具》（對一種新的邏輯方法的描述）、《自然史和實(shí)驗(yàn)史概論》組體現(xiàn)了整理某些觀點(diǎn)及不同風(fēng)格的科學(xué)和哲學(xué)沉思錄．

培根從1605年起開始寫作，但沒有完成的《科學(xué)推進(jìn)論》被認(rèn)為是自亞里士多德時代以來最偉大的著作。

美德好比寶石，在樸素背景的襯托下反而更華麗。同樣，一個打扮并不華貴，卻端莊嚴(yán)肅而有美德的人是令人肅然起敬的。美貌的人并不都有其他方面的才能。許多容貌俊秀的人卻一無所有，他們過于追求外形的美而放棄了內(nèi)在的美。仔細(xì)分析起來，形體之美要勝于顏色之美，而優(yōu)雅行為之美又勝于形體之美。最高的美是畫家所無法表現(xiàn)的。因?yàn)樗请y以直觀的。這是一種奇妙的美，曾經(jīng)有兩位畫家――阿皮雷斯和丟勒滑稽地認(rèn)為，可以按照幾何比例，或者通過攝取不同人身上最美的特點(diǎn)，加以合成的方法，畫出最完美的人像。其實(shí)像這樣畫出來的美人，恐怕只有畫家才喜歡。有些老人顯得很可愛，因?yàn)樗麄兊淖黠L(fēng)優(yōu)雅而美?！懊廊说倪t暮也是美的。”而盡管有的年輕人具有美貌，卻由于缺乏優(yōu)美的修養(yǎng)而不配得到贊美。美有如盛夏的水果，而容易腐爛而難保持的,世上有許多美人,他們有過放蕩青春，卻迎受著愧悔的晚年。因此，把美的形貌與美的德行結(jié)合起來吧。只有這樣，美會放射出真正的光輝。

弗蘭西斯·培根（FrancisBacon,1561-1626）——英國著名的唯物主義哲學(xué)家和科學(xué)家。他在文藝復(fù)興時期的巨人中被尊稱為哲學(xué)史和科學(xué)史上劃時代的人物。馬克思稱他是“英國唯物主義和整個現(xiàn)代實(shí)驗(yàn)科學(xué)的真正始祖。”第一個提出“知識就是力量”的人。

一．培根生平

培根于1561年1月22日出生于倫敦一個官宦世家。父親尼古拉．培根是伊麗莎白女王的掌璽大臣，曾在劍橋大學(xué)攻讀法律，他思想傾向進(jìn)步，信奉英國國敦，反對教皇干涉英國內(nèi)部事物。母親安尼是一位頗有名氣的才女，她嫻熟的掌握希臘文和拉丁文，是加爾文教派的信徒。良好的家庭教育使培根成熟較早，各方面都表現(xiàn)出異乎尋常的才智。12歲時，培根被送入劍橋大學(xué)三一學(xué)院深造。在校學(xué)習(xí)期間，他對傳統(tǒng)的觀念和信仰產(chǎn)生了懷疑，開始獨(dú)自思考社會和人生的真諦。

在劍橋大學(xué)學(xué)習(xí)三年后，培根作為英國駐法大使埃米阿斯．鮑萊爵士的隨員來到了法國，在旅居巴黎兩年半的時間里，他幾乎走遍了整個法國，接觸到不少的新鮮事物，汲取了許多新的思想，這對他的世界觀的形成起到了很大的作用。1579年，培根的父親突然病逝，他要為培根準(zhǔn)備日后贍養(yǎng)之資的計(jì)劃破滅，培根的生活開始陷入貧困。在回國奔父喪之后，培根住進(jìn)了葛萊法學(xué)院，一面攻讀法律，一面四處謀求職位。1582年，他終于取得了律師資格，1584年當(dāng)選為國會議員，1589年，成為法院出缺后的書記，然而這一職位竟長達(dá)20年之久沒有出現(xiàn)空缺。他四處奔波，卻始沒有得到任何職位。此時，培根在思想上更為成熟了，他決心要把脫離實(shí)際，脫離自然的一切知識加以改革，把經(jīng)驗(yàn)觀察、事實(shí)依據(jù)、實(shí)踐效果引入認(rèn)識論。這一偉大抱負(fù)是他的科學(xué)的“偉大復(fù)興”的主要目標(biāo)，是他為之奮斗一生的志向。

1602年，伊麗莎白去世，詹姆士一世繼位。由于培根曾力主蘇格蘭與英格蘭的合并，受到詹姆士的大力贊賞。培根因此平步青云，扶搖直上。1602年受封為爵士，1604年被任命為詹姆士的顧問，1607年被任命為副檢察長，1613年被委任為首席檢察官，1616年被任命為樞密院顧問，1617年提升為掌璽大臣，1618年晉升為英格蘭的大陸官，授封為維魯蘭男爵，1621年又授封為奧爾本斯子爵。但培根的才能和志趣不在國務(wù)活動上，而存在與對科學(xué)真理的探求上。這一時期，他在學(xué)術(shù)研究上取得了巨大的成果。并出版了多部著作

1621年，培根被國會指控貪污受賄，被高級法庭判處罰金四萬磅，監(jiān)禁于倫敦塔內(nèi)，終生逐出宮廷，不得任議員和官職。雖然后來罰金和監(jiān)禁皆被豁免，但培根卻因此而身敗名裂。從此培根不理政事，開始專心從事理論著述。

1626年3月底，培根坐車經(jīng)守倫敦北郊。當(dāng)時他正在潛心研究冷熱理論及其實(shí)際應(yīng)用問題。當(dāng)路過一片雪地時，他突然想作一次實(shí)驗(yàn)，他宰了一只雞，把雪填進(jìn)雞肚，以便觀察冷凍在防腐上的作用。但由于他身體孱弱，經(jīng)受不住風(fēng)寒的侵襲，支氣管炎復(fù)發(fā)，病情惡化，于1626年4月9日清晨病逝。培根死后，人們?yōu)閼涯钏?，為他修建了一座紀(jì)念碑，亨利·沃登爵士為他題寫了墓志銘：

圣奧爾本斯子爵

如用更煊赫的頭銜應(yīng)

稱之為“科學(xué)之光”、“法律之舌”

二．培根的哲學(xué)思想

培根的哲學(xué)思想是與其社會思想是密不可分的。他是資產(chǎn)階級上升時期的代表，主張發(fā)展生產(chǎn)，渴望探索自然，要求發(fā)展科學(xué)。他認(rèn)為是經(jīng)院哲學(xué)阻礙了當(dāng)代科學(xué)的發(fā)展。因此他極力批判經(jīng)院哲學(xué)和神學(xué)權(quán)威。他還進(jìn)一步揭露了人類認(rèn)識產(chǎn)生謬誤的根源，提出了著名的“四假相說”。他說這是在人心普遍發(fā)生的一種病理狀態(tài)，而非在某情況下產(chǎn)生的迷惑與疑難。第一種是“種族的假相”，這是由于人的天性而引起的認(rèn)識錯誤；第二種是“洞穴的假相”是個人由于性格、愛好、教育、環(huán)境而產(chǎn)生的認(rèn)識中片面性的錯誤；第三種是“市場的假相”，即由于人們交往時語言概念的不確定產(chǎn)生的思維混亂。第四種是“劇場的假相”這是指由于盲目迷信權(quán)威和傳統(tǒng)而造成的錯誤認(rèn)識。培根指出，經(jīng)院哲學(xué)家就是利用四種假相來抹煞真理，制造謬誤，從而給予了經(jīng)院哲學(xué)沉重的打擊。但是培根的“假相說”滲透了培根哲學(xué)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)主義傾象，未能對理智的本性與唯心主義的虛妄加以嚴(yán)格區(qū)別。

培根認(rèn)為當(dāng)時的學(xué)術(shù)傳統(tǒng)是貧乏的，原因在于學(xué)術(shù)與經(jīng)驗(yàn)失去接觸。他主張科學(xué)理論與科學(xué)技術(shù)相輔相成。他主張打破“偶像”，鏟除各種偏見和幻想，他提出“真理是時間的女兒而不是權(quán)威的女兒”，對經(jīng)院哲學(xué)進(jìn)行了有力的攻擊。

培根的科學(xué)方法觀以實(shí)驗(yàn)定性和歸納為主。他繼承和發(fā)展了古代關(guān)于物質(zhì)是萬物本源的思想，認(rèn)為世界是由物質(zhì)構(gòu)成的，物質(zhì)具有運(yùn)動的特性，運(yùn)動是物質(zhì)的屬性。培根從唯物論立場出發(fā)，指出科學(xué)的任務(wù)在于認(rèn)識自然界及其規(guī)律。但受時代的局限，他的世界觀還具有樸素唯物論和形而上學(xué)的特點(diǎn)。

三．培根的論著

1597年，培根發(fā)表了他的處女作《論說隨筆文集》。他在書中將自己對社會的認(rèn)識和思考，以及對人生的理解，濃縮成許多富有哲理的名言警句，受到廣大讀者的歡迎。

1605年，培根用英語完成了兩卷集《論學(xué)術(shù)的進(jìn)展》。這是以知識為其研究對象的一部著作，是培根聲稱要以知識為其領(lǐng)域，全面改革知識的宏大理想和計(jì)劃的一部份。培根在書中猛烈抨擊了中世紀(jì)的蒙昧主義，論證了知識的巨大的作用，提示了知識不能令人滿意的現(xiàn)狀及補(bǔ)救的辦法。在這本書中，培根提出一個有系統(tǒng)的科學(xué)百科全書的提綱，對后來十八世紀(jì)的狄德羅為首的法國百科全書派編寫百科全書，起了重大作用。

1609年，在培根任副檢察長時，他又出版了第三本著作《論古人的智慧》。他認(rèn)為在遠(yuǎn)古時代，存在著人類最古的智慧，可以通過對古代寓言故事的研究而發(fā)現(xiàn)失去的最古的智慧。

培根原打算撰寫一部六卷本百科全書式的著作——《偉大的復(fù)興》，這是他要復(fù)興科學(xué)，要對人類知識加以重新改造的巨著，但他未能完成預(yù)期的計(jì)劃，只發(fā)行了前兩部份，1620年出版的《新工具》是該書的第二部份?！缎鹿ぞ摺肥桥喔钪匾恼軐W(xué)著作，它提出了培根在近代所開創(chuàng)的經(jīng)驗(yàn)認(rèn)識原則和經(jīng)驗(yàn)認(rèn)識方法。這本書與亞里士多德的《工具篇》是相對立的。

培根在結(jié)束其政治生涯后，僅用幾個月時間就完成了《亨利七世本紀(jì)》一書，這部著作得到后世史學(xué)家的高度評價，被譽(yù)為是“近代史學(xué)的里程碑”。

大約在1623年，培根寫成了《新大西島》一書，這是一部尚未完成的烏托邦式的作品，由羅萊在他去逝的第二年首次發(fā)表。整理在書中描繪了自己新追求和向往的理想社會藍(lán)圖，設(shè)計(jì)了一個稱為“本色列”的國家，在這個國家里，科學(xué)主宰一切，這是培根畢業(yè)所倡導(dǎo)的科學(xué)的“偉大復(fù)興”的思想信念的集中表現(xiàn)。

此外，培根在逝世后還留下了許多遺著，后來，由許多專家學(xué)者先后整理出版，包括《論事物的本性》、《迷宮的線索》、《各家哲學(xué)的批判》、《自然界的大事》、《論人類的知識》等等。

四．培根在科學(xué)史上的地位

弗蘭西斯·培根是近代哲學(xué)史上首先提出經(jīng)驗(yàn)論原則的哲學(xué)家。他重視感覺經(jīng)驗(yàn)和歸納邏輯在認(rèn)識過程中的作用，開創(chuàng)了以經(jīng)驗(yàn)為手段，研究感性自然的經(jīng)驗(yàn)哲學(xué)的新時代，對近代科學(xué)的建立起了積極的推動作用，對人類哲學(xué)史、科學(xué)史都做出了重大的歷史貢獻(xiàn)。為此，羅素尊稱培根為“給科學(xué)研究程序進(jìn)行邏輯組織化的先驅(qū)”。THEESSAYSOFFRANCISBACON

bbb:///sevenlit/bacon/

＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝＝bbb:///b/bacon.htmSirFrancisBacon(laterLordVerulamandtheViscountSt.Albans)wasanEnglishlawyer,statesman,essayist,historian,intellectualreformer,philosopher,andchampionofmodernscience.Earlyinhiscareerheclaimed“allknowledgeashisprovince”andafterwardsdedicatedhimselftoawholesalerevaluationandre-structuringoftraditionallearning.Totaketheplaceoftheestablishedtradition(amiscellanyofScholasticism,humanism,andnaturalmagic),heproposedanentirelynewsystembasedonempiricalandinductiveprinciplesandtheactivedevelopmentofnewartsandinventions,asystemwhoseultimategoalwouldbetheproductionofpracticalknowledgefor“theuseandbenefitofmen”andthereliefofthehumancondition.Atthesametimethathewasfoundingandpromotingthisnewprojectfortheadvancementoflearning,Baconwasalsomovinguptheladderofstateservice.HiscareeraspirationshadbeenlargelydisappointedunderElizabethI,butwiththeascensionofJameshispoliticalfortunesrose.Knightedin1603,hewasthensteadilypromotedtoaseriesofoffices,includingSolicitorGeneral(1607),AttorneyGeneral(1613),andeventuallyLordChancellor(1618).WhileservingasChancellor,hewasindictedonchargesofbriberyandforcedtoleavepublicoffice.Hethenretiredtohisestatewherehedevotedhimselffulltimetohiscontinuingliterary,scientific,andphilosophicalwork.Hediedin1626,leavingbehindaculturallegacythat,forbetterorworse,includesmostofthefoundationforthetriumphoftechnologyandforthemodernworldaswecurrentlyknowit.

TableofContents(Clickingonthelinksbelowwilltakeyoutothosepartsofthisarticle)1.LifeandPoliticalCareer

2.ThoughtandWritings

a.LiteraryWorks

b.TheNewAtlantis

c.ScientificandPhilosophicalWorks

d.TheGreatInstauration

e.TheAdvancementofLearning

f.The“Distempers”ofLearning

g.TheIdeaofProgress

h.TheReclassificationofKnowledge

i.TheNewOrganon

j.TheIdols

k.Induction

3.ReputationandCulturalLegacy

4.ReferencesandFurtherReading

1.LifeandPoliticalCareerSirFrancisBacon(laterLordVerulam,theViscountSt.Albans,andLordChancellorofEngland)wasborninLondonin1561toaprominentandwell-connectedfamily.HisparentswereSirNicholasBacon,theLordKeeperoftheSeal,andLadyAnneCooke,daughterofSirAnthonyCooke,aknightandone-timetutortotheroyalfamily.LadyAnnewasalearnedwomaninherownright,havingacquiredGreekandLatinaswellasItalianandFrench.Shewasasister-in-lawbothtoSirThomasHoby,theesteemedEnglishtranslatorofCastiglione,andtoSirWilliamCecil(laterLordBurghley),LordTreasurer,chiefcounselortoElizabethI,andfrom1572-1598themostpowerfulmaninEngland.BaconwaseducatedathomeatthefamilyestateatGorhamburyinHerfordshire.In1573,attheageofjusttwelve,heenteredTrinityCollege,Cambridge,wherethestodgyScholasticcurriculumtriggeredhislifelongoppositiontoAristotelianism(thoughnottotheworksofAristotlehimself).In1576BaconbeganreadinglawatGray’sInn.YetonlyayearlaterheinterruptedhisstudiesinordertotakeapositioninthediplomaticserviceinFranceasanassistanttotheambassador.In1579,whilehewasstillinFrance,hisfatherdied,leavinghim(asthesecondsonofasecondmarriageandtheyoungestofsixheirs)virtuallywithoutsupport.Withnoposition,noland,noincome,andnoimmediateprospects,hereturnedtoEnglandandresumedthestudyoflaw.Baconcompletedhislawdegreein1582,andin1588hewasnamedlecturerinlegalstudiesatGray’sInn.Inthemeantime,hewaselectedtoParliamentin1584asamemberforMelcombeinDorsetshire.HewouldremaininParliamentasarepresentativeforvariousconstituenciesforthenext36years.In1593hisbluntcriticismofanewtaxlevyresultedinanunfortunatesetbacktohiscareerexpectations,theQueentakingpersonaloffenseathisopposition.AnyhopeshehadofbecomingAttorneyGeneralorSolicitorGeneralduringherreignweredashed,thoughElizabetheventuallyrelentedtotheextentofappointingBaconherExtraordinaryCounselin1596.ItwasaroundthistimethatBaconenteredtheserviceofRobertDevereux,theEarlofEssex,adashingcourtier,soldier,plotterofintrigue,andsometimefavoriteoftheQueen.NodoubtBaconviewedEssexasarisingstarandafigurewhocouldprovideamuch-neededboosttohisownsaggingcareer.Unfortunately,itwasnotlongbeforeEssex’sownfortunesplummetedfollowingaseriesofmilitaryandpoliticalblundersculminatinginadisastrouscoupattempt.Whenthecoupplotfailed,Devereuxwasarrested,tried,andeventuallyexecuted,withBacon,inhiscapacityasQueen’sCounsel,playingavitalroleintheprosecutionofthecase.In1603,JamesIsucceededElizabeth,andBacon’sprospectsforadvancementdramaticallyimproved.Afterbeingknightedbytheking,heswiftlyascendedtheladderofstateandfrom1604-1618filledasuccessionofhigh-profileadvisorypositions:1604–AppointedKing’sCounsel.1607–NamedSolicitorGeneral.1608–AppointedClerkoftheStarChamber.1613–AppointedAttorneyGeneral.1616–MadeamemberofthePrivyCouncil.1617–AppointedLordKeeperoftheRoyalSeal(hisfather’sformeroffice).1618–MadeLordChancellor.AsLordChancellor,Baconwieldedadegreeofpowerandinfluencethathecouldonlyhaveimaginedasayounglawyerseekingpreferment.Yetitwasatthispoint,whilehestoodattheverypinnacleofsuccess,thathesufferedhisgreatFall.In1621hewasarrestedandchargedwithbribery.Afterpleadingguilty,hewasheavilyfinedandsentencedtoaprisontermintheTowerofTheentireepisodewasaterribledisgraceforBaconpersonallyandastigmathatwouldclingtoandinjurehisreputationforyearstocome.Asvariouschroniclersofthecasehavepointedout,theacceptingofgiftsfromsuppliantsinalawsuitwasacommonpracticeinBacon’sday,anditisalsotruethatBaconendedupjudgingagainstthetwopetitionerswhohadofferedthefatefulbribes.Yetthedamagewasdone,andBacontohiscreditacceptedthejudgmentagainsthimwithoutexcuse.AccordingtohisownEssayes,orCounsels,heshouldhaveknownanddonebetter.(Inthisrespectitisworthnotingthatduringhisforcedretirement,BaconrevisedandrepublishedtheEssayes,injectinganevengreaterdegreeofshrewdnessintoacollectionalreadynotableforitsworldlinessandkeenpoliticalsense.)MacaulayinalengthyessaydeclaredBaconagreatintellectbut(borrowingaphrasefromBacon’sownletters)a“mostdishonestman,”andmorethanonewriterhascharacterizedhimascold,calculating,andarrogant.Yetwhateverhisflaws,evenhisenemiesconcededthatduringhistrialheacceptedhispunishmentnobly,andmovedon.Baconspenthisremainingyearsworkingwithreneweddeterminationonhislifelongproject:thereformoflearningandtheestablishmentofanintellectualcommunitydedicatedtothediscoveryofscientificknowledgeforthe“useandbenefitofmen.”TheformerLordChancellordiedon9April,1626,supposedlyofacoldorpneumoniacontractedwhiletestinghistheoryofthepreservativeandinsulatingpropertiesofsnow.

BacktoTableofContents2.ThoughtandWritingsInawayBacon’sdescentfrompoliticalpowerwasafortunatefall,foritrepresentedaliberationfromthebondageofpublicliferesultinginaremarkablefinalburstofliteraryandscientificactivity.AsRenaissancescholarandBaconexpertBrianVickershasremindedus,Bacon’searlierworks,impressiveastheyare,wereessentiallyproductsofhis“sparetime.”Itwasonlyduringhislastfiveyearsthathewasabletoconcentrateexclusivelyonwritingandproduce,inadditiontoahandfulofminorpieces:Twosubstantialvolumesofhistoryandbiography,TheHistoryoftheReignofKingHenrytheSeventhandTheHistoryoftheReignofKingHenrytheEighth.DeAugmentisScientiarum(anexpandedLatinversionofhisearlierAdvancementofLearning).Thefinal1625editionofhisEssayes,orCounsels.TheremarkableSylvaSylvarum,orANaturalHistoryinTenCenturies(acurioushodge-podgeofscientificexperiments,personalobservations,speculations,ancientteachings,andanalyticaldiscussionsontopicsrangingfromthecausesofhiccupstoexplanationsfortheshortageofraininEgypt).Artificiallydividedintoten“centuries”(i.e.,tenchapters,eachconsistingofonehundreditems),theworkwasapparentlyintendedtobeincludedinPartThreeoftheMagnaInstauratio.Hisutopianscience-fictionnovelTheNewAtlantis,whichwaspublishedinunfinishedformayearafterhisdeath.VariouspartsofhisunfinishedmagnumopusMagnaInstauratio(orGreatInstauration),includinga“NaturalHistoryofWinds”anda“NaturalHistoryofLifeandDeath.”Theselateproductionsrepresentedthecapstoneofawritingcareerthatspannedmorethanfourdecadesandencompassedvirtuallyanentirecurriculumofliterary,scientific,andphilosophicalstudies.

BacktoTableofContentsa.LiteraryWorksDespitethefanaticalclaims(andveryun-Baconiancredulity)ofafewadmirers,itisavirtualcertaintythatBacondidnotwritetheworkstraditionallyattributedtoWilliamShakespeare.Evenso,theLordChancellor’shighplaceinthehistoryofEnglishliteratureaswellashisinfluentialroleinthedevelopmentofEnglishprosestyleremainwell-establishedandsecure.IndeedevenifBaconhadproducednothingelsebuthismasterfulEssayes(firstpublishedin1597andthenrevisedandexpandedin1612and1625),hewouldstillrateamongthetopechelonof17th-centuryEnglishauthors.Andsowhenwetakeintoaccounthisotherwritings,e.g.,hishistories,letters,andespeciallyhismajorphilosophicalandscientificworks,wemustsurelyplacehiminthefirstrankofEnglishliterature’sgreatmenoflettersandamongitsfinestmasters(alongsidenameslikeJohnson,Mill,Carlyle,andRuskin)ofnon-fictionprose.Bacon’sstyle,thoughelegant,isbynomeansassimpleasitseemsorasitisoftendescribed.Infactitisactuallyafairlycomplexaffairthatachievesitsairofeaseandclaritymorethroughitsbalancedcadences,naturalmetaphors,andcarefullyarrangedsymmetriesthanthroughtheuseofplainwords,commonplaceideas,andstraightforwardsyntax.(InthisconnectionitisnoteworthythatintherevisedversionsoftheessaysBaconseemstohavedeliberatelydisruptedmanyofhisearlierbalancedeffectstoproduceastylethatisactuallymorejaggedand,ineffect,morechallengingtothecasualreader.)Furthermore,justasBacon’spersonalstyleandlivinghabitswerepronetoextravaganceandneverparticularlyaustere,soinhiswritinghewasneverquiteabletoresisttheoccasionalgrandword,magniloquentphrase,ororotundeffect.(AsDr.Johnsonobserved,“AdictionaryoftheEnglishlanguagemightbecompiledfromBacon’sworksalone.”)BishopSpratinhis1667HistoryoftheRoyalSocietyhonoredBaconandpraisedthesocietymembershipforsupposedlyeschewingfinewordsandfancymetaphorsandadheringinsteadtoanaturallucidityand“mathematicalplainness.”Towriteinsuchaway,Spratsuggested,wastofollowtrue,scientific,Baconianprinciples.AndwhileBaconhimselfoftenexpressedsimilarsentiments(praisingbluntexpressionwhilecondemningtheseductionsoffigurativelanguage),areaderwouldbehardpressedtofindmanyexamplesofsuchsparetechniqueinBacon’sownwritings.OfBacon’scontemporaryreaders,atleastonetookexceptiontotheviewthathiswritingrepresentedaperfectmodelofplainlanguageandtransparentmeaning.AfterperusingtheNewOrganon,KingJames(towhomBaconhadproudlydedicatedthevolume)reportedlypronouncedthework“l(fā)ikethepeaceofGod,whichpassethallunderstanding.”BacktoTableofContents

b.TheNewAtlantisAsaworkofnarrativefiction,Bacon’snovelNewAtlantismaybeclassifiedasaliteraryratherthanascientific(orphilosophical)work,thoughiteffectivelybelongstobothcategories.AccordingtoBacon’samanuensisandfirstbiographerWilliamRawley,thenovelrepresentsthefirstpart(showingthedesignofagreatcollegeorinstitutedevotedtotheinterpretationofnature)ofwhatwastohavebeenalongerandmoredetailedproject(depictingtheentirelegalstructureandpoliticalorganizationofanidealcommonwealth).Theworkthusstandsinthegreattraditionoftheutopian-philosophicalnovelthatstretchesfromPlatoandMoretoHuxleyandSkinner.ThethinplotorfableislittlemorethanafictionalshelltocontaintherealmeatofBacon’sstory:theelaboratedescriptionofSalomon’sHouse(alsoknownastheCollegeoftheSixDaysWorks),acentrallyorganizedresearchfacilitywherespeciallytrainedteamsofinvestigatorscollectdata,conductexperiments,and(mostimportantlyfromBacon’spointofview)applytheknowledgetheygaintoproduce“thingsofuseandpracticeforman’slife.”Thesenewartsandinventionstheyeventuallysharewiththeoutsideworld.Intermsofitssci-fiadventureelements,theNewAtlantisisaboutasexcitingasagovernmentoruniversityre-organizationplan.Butintermsofitshistoricalimpact,thenovelhasproventobenothinglessthanrevolutionary,havingservednotonlyasaneffectiveinspirationandmodelfortheBritishRoyalSociety,butalsoasanearlyblueprintandprophecyofthemodernresearchcenterandinternationalscientificcommunity.BacktoTableofContents

c.ScientificandPhilosophicalWorksItisnevereasytosummarizethethoughtofaprolificandwide-rangingphilosopher.YetBaconsomewhatsimplifiesthetaskbyhisownhelpfulhabitsofsystematicclassificationandcatchymnemoniclabeling.(Thus,forexample,therearethree“distempers”–ordiseases–oflearning,”elevenerrorsor“peccanthumours,”four“Idols,”threeprimarymentalfacultiesandcategoriesofknowledge,etc.)Ineffect,byfollowingBacon’sownmethodsitispossi