Brief-Introduction-of-ESP-Teaching-and-Research-in-China-中國專門用途英語教學(xué)與研究概況畢業(yè)論文

本科畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)（論文）(2011屆)題目：中國專門用途英語教學(xué)與研究概況BriefIntroductionofESPTeachingandResearchinChinaPAGEIContentsChapterOneIntroduction1ChapterTwoAnOverviewofESPTeachingandResearch12.1TheDefinitionofESP12.2TheClassificationofESP22.3TheDevelopmentofESP32.3.1RegisterAnalysis32.3.2RhetoricalorDiscourseAnalysis42.3.3TargetSituationAnalysis42.3.4SkillsandStrategiesApproach52.3.5Learning-centredApproach52.4TheDevelopmentofESPinChina6ChapterThreeTheCourseDesignofESP63.1TheCourseDesignofESPinChina63.2NeedsAnalysis73.1.1TargetNeed83.1.2LearningNeeds83.1.3TheNeedsofChina’sStudents93.2ApproachestoESPCourseDesign93.2.1Language-centredCourseDesign103.2.2Skills-centredCourseDesign103.2.3ALearning-centredApproach11ChapterFourTheESPTeachingMaterialsinChina124.1TheRelationshipwithTeacher,StudentandTeachingMethod124.2TheExistedProblemofChineseESPTeachingMaterials134.3ThePrincipleandMethod13ChapterFiveTheRoleofESPTeacher14ChapterSixConclusion15PAGEIIAcknowledgementsIwouldliketoexpressmydeeplythankstomysupervisorMs.LiPei,whohasofferedmealotofvaluablehelpinwritingthisthesis.Withoutherhelpandwiseguidance,itisimpossibleformetofinishthethesis.Atthesametime,IwanttosaythankyoutomygoodfriendswhohelpmeoutwhenIcometotroublesintheprocessofwriting.Finally,mygratitudealsogoestomyroommateswhogivemelotsofadvice.PAGEIVAbstract：Withthedevelopmentofourcountry’ssociety,andin-depthstudyoflinguistics,EnglishforSpecialPurposesisbecomingmoreandmoreimportantinChina’sEnglishEducation.ThispaperdescribesthecharacteristicsandcontentsofEnglishforSpecificPurposes,andcomparingthedomesticandforeignstatusofteachingstudiesofESP,makingamorecomprehensiveassessmentandputtingforwardspecificrequirementsindevelopingteachingmaterials,strategies,curriculum,evaluationandsoonwithinChineseEnglishteaching,whichhopestogivethepracticeofESPteachingalittlerevelation.KeyWords：EnglishforSpecificPurposes;teachingstudies;analyzingandrequiring;revelation摘要：隨著我們國家社會(huì)的發(fā)展，以及語言學(xué)的深入研究，特殊用途英語教學(xué)在中國的英語教學(xué)上也越來越突顯出其重要性。本文通過介紹特殊用途英語的的特點(diǎn)和內(nèi)容，調(diào)查研究并比較國內(nèi)外ESP的教學(xué)和研究現(xiàn)狀，對(duì)中國英語教學(xué)中的師資教材制定、教學(xué)策略、課程設(shè)置等多方面做出比較全面的分析并且提出具體的要求，從而希望能給我國ESP教學(xué)的實(shí)踐以一定的啟示。關(guān)鍵詞：特殊用途英語；教學(xué)研究；分析要求；啟示2-ChapterOneIntroductionESP(EnglishforSpecificPurposes)teachingisabranchofthefieldofEnglishlinguisticsandfirstlyappearedinEnglishspeakingcountriesintheearly1960s.Likeanyformoflanguageteaching,ESPisprimarilyconcernedwithlearning.Itcansaythatitsappearanceanddevelopmentcomesfromtheneedsofthecommunity.Alongwiththeincreasingglobalpolitical,economicandculturalexchange,thestatusofEnglishbeingtheuniversallanguageintheworldisincreasinglygettingholdofstrength.MoreandmorepeoplebegintopayattentiontoEnglishandlearnit.ThereisagreatenthusiasminstudyingEnglisharoundtheworld.InordertomeetthevariouskindsofEnglishlearners’needsofdifferentpurposes,ESPwasborn.WhilethecontinuousgrowingEnglishlearningenthusiasmleadtotherapiddevelopmentofESP.EnglishforSpecificPurposesenteredintothefieldofEnglishteachingbyitsspecialrole.ESPhasbeenvaluedbymanylinguisticexpertsinChinaandalargeamountofcollegeshavesetupvariouskindsofESPcourses.Thefieldofapplicationlinguisticsalsohastheresearchdirection.However,EnglishforSpecificPurposesisnotverypopulartoallofthepeople.TheydonotknowthemaincontentsofESP.IsthereanyfunctionandfutureaboutESP?Theobjectiveofthispaperistointroducethedevelopment,applicationofESPtoChineseteachersandstudents.Thisthesisisdividedintofourparts.MainlytalkingaboutwhatisESP,thederivation,classificationanddevelopmentofESP,thepracticalapplicationofthecoursedesignintheformofasyllabus,materialsandassessment,theroleoftheESPteacherandprovidinginformationaboutresourcestohelptheteacher.ChapterTwoAnOverviewofESPTeachingandResearch2.1TheDefinitionofESPFromtheearly1960’s,EnglishforSpecificPurposes(ESP)hasgrowntobecomeoneofthemostprominentareasofEFL(Englishasaforeignlanguage).ItisanewbranchofEnglishsubjectandonelearning-centeredteachingmethod.AftertheoutbreakofWorldWarII,withtherapiddevelopmentofscienceandgreatincreaseofeconomicactivitiesinwesterncountries,internationalexchangesbecomingmorefrequent,Englishmustbetheinternationalcommonlanguageasthekeytothetiesofinternationalscienceandtechnology.Therefore,thepurposesofpeoplelearningEnglishisveryclearthatcommandingEnglishasatoolforservicingtheirengagedprofession.InordertomeettheneedsofdifferentpeoplelearningEnglish,ESPhascomeintobeing.AndtheincessantstudypassionalsoleadstothecontinuedrapiddevelopmentofEnglishforSpecificPurposes.Sincethelate1960s,thereweresomefamousbooksaboutEnglishforSpecificPurposes.TheyhavegivendifferentelaborationofESP.In1964,“TheLinguisticSciencesandLanguageTeaching”byHalliday,McIntosh&Strevenswrote:“Englishforcivilservants;forpolicemen;forofficialsofthelaw;fordispensersandnurses;forspecialistsinagriculture;forengineersandfitters.”Afterthem,afewrepresentativeliteraturecameforthcontinuously,suchas“EnglishforSpecificPurposes”byTomHutchinson&AlanWatersand“DevelopmentsinEnglishforSpecificPurposes”byT.DudleyEvans&M.STJohn.Hutchinson&Waters(1987)regardedESPasamethodbutnotaproductandthoughtthatwhattheESPincludingwasnotakindofspeciallanguage,teachingmaterialorways.Theypointedout“ThebaseofEnglishforSpecificPurposesisasimplyquestion:Whyalearnerneedsaforeignlanguage?”(Hutchinson&Waters,1987).Thisquestion’sanswerisrelatedtothelearner’srequisitelanguageandenvironment.ItdecidestheleadingroleofrequirementinESPandtherequirementischangingbydifferentintention.SowhatweneedtodobeforemakingupourmindinlearningEnglishistomakesureforwhatpurposes.2.2TheClassificationofESPIntheclassification,ESPcanbedividedintothreeparts:EnglishforScienceandTechnology(EST);EnglishfortheSocialScience(ESS)andEnglishforBusinessandEconomics(EBE).Eachbranchstillcanbeseparatedintotwopoints:EnglishforAcademicPurposes(EAP)andEnglishforOccupationalPurposes(EOP).Thewayofthisdivisioniscalled“Trichotomy”.ItwasfirstlyputforwardbyHutchinson&Watersin1987.Thereareanotherdivisionexistingcalled“Dichotomy”.Dudley-EvansandStJohn(1998)considertheESPastwofieldsintradition:EnglishforAcademicPurposes(EAP)andEnglishforOccupationalPurposes(EOP).ThiskindofdivisionisbasedontheeachphasewhichESPcoursewasfoundout.ItissignificantthattheycanaffecttheprofessionaldegreeinESPcoursedesign.EAPmeansthatpeoplelearnEnglishforacademicexchangeandreceiptofhighereducation,whileEOPisforeffectiveoccupationaltechnicaltrainingtovariouspersonnel.ThelatterismainlyinstudyingEnglishfordealingwithspecificsituation,theneedsofcommunication,andsomedifferentprofessionalandtechnicalmissions.Notbeingthesame,theformerusuallylearnlanguagecommoncoreortheEnglishinconnectionwiththeirmajor.IsESPdifferenttoEnglishforGeneralPurposes(EGP)?Ifweagreewiththisdefinition,wemaybegintofindouthowbroadESPreallyis.Sometimes,youmayask“WhatisthedifferencebetweentheESPandEGPapproach?”EGP(EnglishforGeneralPurposes)mainlyreferstothetypicallanguagecoursesatschool.Theaimofstudents’studyisformasteringbalancedlanguage’sfourbasicskills:listening,speaking,readingandwriting.Becausetheactualneedsofthelearnersarepotential,uncertainandthemainteachingcontentsofGeneralEnglishonlyfrom-PAGE17-thegenerallanguageknowledgeandskills.RelativetoEGP,ESPhastwoobviouscharacteristics:Firstly,theclearrangeofapplication.TheuserhastouseEnglishinthefieldofhisworkduetospecificindustryneeds.Secondly,thereisaspecificlanguagecontent,namelyspecializationcontent.ThelearninggoalsofEGPandEFPareabsolutelydifferent.However,EGPisthebaseofESPwhichdevelopsandimprovesstudents’languageworkingabilityfurtheraimingattheirpracticalneedsontopofEGPdevelopingstudents’languagerudiments.Therefore,ESPandEGPcanbeeitherparallelorconsecutiverelationship.2.3TheDevelopmentofESPHutchisonandWaters(1987)havesaid:Fromtheearlybeginningsinthe1960s,ESPhasundergonefourmainphasesofdevelopment:RegisterAnalysis;RhetoricalorDiscourseAnalysis;TargetSituationAnalysis;SkillsandStrategies.Anditisnowinafifthphase,ALearning-CentredApproach.ItshouldbepointedoutfirstofallthatESPisnotagreatuniversalphenomenon.AlthoughESPhasdevelopedatdifferentspeedsindifferentcountries,theresearchnormsbotharethestudyofEnglishforScienceandTechnology.2.3.1RegisterAnalysisRegisteranalysis,theconceptofspeciallanguage,tookplacemainlyinthe1960sandearly1970sandwasassociatedinparticularwiththeworkofPeterStrevens(Halliday,McIntosh&Strevens,1964),JackEwer(EwerandLatorre,1969)andJohnSwales(1971)(Hutchinson&Waters,1987).Inthelate1960s,undertheinfluenceofAmericanstructurallinguisticstheory,peoplebegantoconcludeandanalyzefocusingonsentencestructure,verbform,glossaryandsoonofanarticle.Whattheresearchbasingonthetheoryoflanguagevariationiscalledregisteranalysis.Itmainlyresearchedandanalyzedsomecharacteristicsinusinglanguageindifferentlanguageenvironment.Intheearlyregisteranalysismoment,itapplieditselftoresearchingthequestionsofvocabularyandgrammarinscientificdiscourse.OperatingonthebasicprinciplethattheEnglishof,say,ElectricalEngineeringconstitutedaspecificregisterdifferentfromthatof,say,BiologyorofGeneralEnglish,theaimoftheanalysiswastoidentifythegrammaticalandlexicalfeaturesoftheseregisters.Teachingmaterialsthentooktheselinguisticfeaturesastheimportantevidenceformakingsyllabus.Themostrepresentativeofsuchasyllabusisthatof“ACourseinBasicScientificEnglish”byEwer&Latorre(1969).TheywasthepedagogiconeofmakingtheESPcoursemorerelevanttolearners’needsandproducingasyllabuswhichgavehighprioritytothelanguageformsstudentswouldmeetintheirSciencestudiesandinturnwouldgivelowprioritytoformstheywouldnotmeet.Infact,registeranalysisdidnotrevealthemoredifferencebetweenESPandEGPinanyformssuchasthepresentsimpletense,thepassivevoiceandnominalcompounds.Ofcourse,wecannotoverlookthesignificanceofregisteranalysis.ItundoubtedactedasasignforESPteachingatthattime.2.3.2RhetoricalorDiscourseAnalysis.Withthefurtherdevelopmentoflinguisticstheory,therewereseriousflawsintheregisteranalysis-basedsyllabus.Andasithappened,registeranalysiswasrapidlyovertakenbydevelopmentintheworldoflinguistics.ESPhaveturnedintosecondphaseofdevelopmentshiftedattentiontothelevelabovethesentencefromthefirststageofitsdevelopmentfocusingonlanguageatthesentencelevel.ESPbecamemorecloselyinvolvedwiththeemergingfieldofrhetoricalordiscourseanalysis.ThereweresomefamouspersonssuchasHenryWiddowson,JohnLackstron,LarrySelinker,LouisTrimbleandMaryTodd-Trimble.Therepresentativebook“EnglishforScienceandTechnology:ADiscourseApproach”byLouisTrimble(1985)advisedauthorsusingfourlevelstoorganizediscourse:A.Theobjectivesofthetotaldiscourse;B.ThegeneralrhetoricalfunctionsthatdeveloptheobjectivesofLevelA;C.ThespecificrhetoricalfunctionsthatdevelopthegeneralrhetoricalfunctionsofLevelB;D.TherhetoricaltechniquesthatproviderelationshipswithinandbetweentherhetoricalunitsofLevelC(Huchinson&Water,1987).TheimportantrepresentativepeopleWiddowsonandAllen（1974）expressedthisstagesuccinctly.Theyhavesaid:WetaketheviewthatthedifficultieswhichthestudentsencounterarisenotsomuchfromadefectiveknowledgeofthesystemofEnglish,butfromanunfamiliaritywithEnglishuse,andthatconsequentlytheirneedscannotbemetbyacoursewhichsimplyprovidesfurtherpracticeinthecompositionofsentences,butonlybyonewhichdevelopsaknowledgeofhowsentencesareusedintheperformanceofdifferentcommunicativeacts.Thesecondstagehadprominentprogressthanthefirst.ItbreathedpowerfulactivityintoESPresearchandteachingandactedaveryimportantroleinmasteringEnglishofdifferentstructureandpresentationindifferentprofessionalfield.However,inpractice,peoplefoundagreatgapbetweendiscourseanalysisandstudents’actualneeds.Theycouldnotcommunicateveryexactlyfluentinspecificsituationalcontextalthoughtheyhavecommandedtheorganizationskillsofdiscourse.2.3.3TargetSituationAnalysisTargetsituationanalysishasbeenthemainstreamofESPteachingforalongtime.Comparedwithtwostagesinfront,thisstagedidnotaddanythingnewtotherangeofknowledgeaboutESP.Ittooktheexistingknowledgeandsetitonamorescientificbasis,byestablishingproceduresforrelatinglanguageanalysismorecloselytolearners’reasonsforlearningEnglish.Hutchinson&Waters(2002)havediscoveredacoursecalled“needsanalysis”,theysaid:GiventhatthepurposeofanESPcourseistoenablelearnerstofunctionadequatelyinatargetsituation,thatis,thesituationinwhichthelearnerswillusethelanguagetheyarelearning,thentheESPcoursedesignprocessshouldprocessbyfirstidentifyingthetargetsituationandthencarryingoutarigorousanalysisofthelinguisticfeaturesofthatsituation.TheidentifiedfeatureswillformthesyllabusoftheESPcourse.Thisprocessisusuallyknownasneedsanalysis.ThereprehensivepersoninthisstagewasJohnMunbywhogaveanintensiveexplaintotargetsituationanalysisinhisbook“CommunicativeSyllabusDesign”.Heproducedadetailedprofileofthelearners’needsintermsofcommunicationpurposes,setting,themeansofcommunication,languageskills,functions,structuresetc.2.3.4SkillsandStrategiesApproachThisstagehadagreatprogresscomparedwithlate1970s.Itmadethelearners’needsmorerefinedandsystematic.Moreimportantwasthatitconsideredtheskillsoflanguage.Skillsandstrategiesapproachlookedbelowthesurfaceandtoconsidernotthelanguageitselfbutthethinkingprocessesthatunderlielanguageuse.Theguidingideologyofskillsandstrategiesapproachanalysisis:Anylanguagesbothhaveareasoningcoursecalledresolutionprocessintheiruse.DudleyEvans&St.John(1998)hasintroducedacoursecalled“SkillsforLearning”publishedbyNelsonandtheUniversityofMalayaPresswhichhasbeendoneclosetothegroundinschemes.TheyweresetuptocopewithstudysituationwherethemediumofinstructionisthemothertonguebutstudentsneedtoreadanumberofspecialisttextswhichareavailableonlyinEnglish.Therefore,theprojectshaveconcentratedtheireffortsonreadingstrategies(Hutchinson&Waters,2002).Despiteanessentialleapinforthstage,itdidnotpointouthowstudentscouldlearnEnglishforSpecificPurposeswell.2.3.5Learning-centeredApproachWhatthefifthstagemainlypaysattentiontoisthelearningcourseoflanguagebylearnerswiththepointhowtolearnlanguageefficient.Learning-centeredapproachalsoisthedevelopingstageofESP.Thefirstfourstagesarefundamentallyflawed.Theyareallbasedonthedescriptionoftheuseoflanguage.ButHutchinsonandWatersthinkwhattheyneedtobaseislanguagelearning.ThebestandreallyusefulwayoflearningESPmustbasedontheunderstandingofthecourseoflanguagelearning.Theirthoughtswereofperfectin1987andorganizedintoanewconceptcalledLearning-centered(嚴(yán)明，2008)Learning-centerednotonlyneedstotakesufficientaccountoflearners’learningmotivationandprocess,butalsotodevelopaseriesofmeasuretoachievethetarget.JohnandDavies(1983)haveprovidedausefulmethod:Consideringlearningchapterasavehicleforinformationbutnotlinguisticobject.Throughgroupdiscussions,studentsexploretheexpressedmeaningfromdiscoursetogether.Theteachingwayof“questionsolving”showagainthereallysituationthatstudentsgetthediscoursesignificancebyreadingindependent.2.4TheDevelopmentofESPinChinaComparedwiththedevelopmentofEnglishforSpecificPurposesinwesterncountries,TheESPteachingandresearchinChinaisnotoptimistic.AsthebasisofChineseforeignlanguageteachingtheoryisveryweak,leadingtothedomesticESPofalatestartuntilthe1980s.Mainlyincludestwoaspects:First,thetheoreticalstudyofESPteaching,thesecondisthepracticeofteachingESP.NotESPteachingandresearchingortheoreticalstudywasduetostartatthestageanddidnotmakeaseriesofresearchresultsintoasystem.ThemorejustlimitedtothepracticeresearchofESPteachingandlessonthefieldofESPteachingresearch.Thelate1970sto1980s,thedomesticESPteachingismainlyinEnglishforTechnology.XiubaiQin(2003)thoughtthattheearliestresearcheffortinthefieldofESPteachinginChinawasYangHui’stwoarticles“TheteachingandresearchofEST”and“TheteachingandreachtrendofforeignEST”.ThesetwobooksemphaticallyintroducedtheforeignstatusofESPteachingdevelopmentandeveryinternallinksofESPteaching.Subsequently,moreandmoredomesticexpertsbegantointroduceandpromotetheconceptoftheteachingofESP.ThemainrepresentativesareChengShilu,ZhangGuoyang.WenJun,ChenLiping,FanYi,etc.LiliMo(2008)said:TheybegantohaveadeepresearchintheexistingargumentsofESP,theassociationbetweenESPreadingandwritingpractices,etc.AndcorrelativetheoriessuchasschematheoryandthestationofESPteachingandresearchinsubject-specificdevelopment,etc.Meanwhile,researchonteachingpractice,forexample,thenatureofteaching,teachingmethods,teachingstaffandtestingcapabilities,alsomadesomeprogress.ThemainrepresentativepersonsareCaiJiwen,QingXiubaiandChenMingyao.Since2000,theresearchofESPinChinahasexpendedthoroughlyandgonedowndeeply.TherearespecificstudiesonESPteachingmethods,coursedesign.Thesestudieshaveextendedtoeverysurface,improvedthequalityofESPteachingandpromotedthedevelopmentofESPteachingpractice.ChapterThreeTheCourseDesignofESP3.1TheCourseDesignofESPinChinaBeforeresearchingcoursedesignandcourseoutline,wemustknowtheconceptofcourse.So,what’scourse?InaccordancewiththeChinesefromtheliteralmeaning,thecourseisthesubject,taskandprocessorteachingprogram.Fromtheperspectiveofteachingbehaviors,teachingcontainsthreeparts:student,teacherandcourse.Studentrepresentstheobject.Teachermeansteachingactivitiesandbehavior.Courseisthenecessaryprocedureinteaching.Including“planning,understandingtheobject,settinggoals,selectingandorganizingcontent,decidingmethods,themeasureoftestingandevaluation,etc.”(夏紀(jì)梅，2003).Courseismulti-tieredmulti-facetedandmulti-channelproductfromteachingandlearning.Alanguagecourseiscomposedbytheviewoflanguage,languagelearningandteaching.In1988,EnglishDepartmentofBeijingForeignCollegehascarriedoutalarge-scalesamplesurveytotheeducationalstateofcollegesanduniversitiesinChina.Intheresultoftheinvestigationtocoursedesign,itpointedoutthattherewereafewofargumentsinthedesignofEnglishprofessionalcourseandthefocuswastosetupprofessionalcoursesuchasESPcourse.Thereweretworeasonsforthischange:Firstly,afterreformandopening-up,anewsocialstructurechanges,andatthesametimeitleadstotheemployershavenewrequirementstothegraduatestudentsofEnglishmajor.Anotherreasonisthechangesintheconsciousnessofstudentstheirselves.Astheworldhasenteredintotheinformationage,thechangesinsocialdemandforqualifiedpersonnelmakestudentsenhancetheprofessionalsense.Inordertoadapttothesechanges,partsofcollegesanduniversitiesbegintoplanthecoursedesignalloveragain.TheyputtheirsightmoreatthepracticalityandskillsofESPcourse.However,manyuniversitiesignoredtheteachingofprofessionalknowledgeofEnglishandleadingtostudent’slanguagebasisisnotthephenomenonofsolid.Aftertenyearsofconstructionanddevelopment,theESPcourseinChinaisbecomingmoreandmorereasonableandperfect,butitisstillnotcomplete.TherelevantESPcourseinmostcollegesanduniversitiesisjustlikefurnishingandbecomeanoptionalcourse.Theexistingproblemsalsoareobvious.Courseisnotcomprehensive.Atleastoneprofessionalmoduleofthecourseisnotfullsuchasforeigntradecourse.Courseisnotcontinuous.Allcoursesjusthavebeenforaterm,andsomeshouldbeforoneyearbutonlyaterm,Eachcoursedoesnothaveanycertaincorrelation.Thereisagreatgapbetweencoursesandstudents’needs.TheprofessionalEnglishcoursesareunevenintheamountofdistributionineachterm.TheseproblemsrestrictthedevelopmentofEnglishforSpecificPurposesteachinginalargeextent,resultinginmanysuchasemploymentandstudents’followingdevelopmentrealisticquestions.Fortunately,moreandmorecollegesanduniversitieshaverecognizedit,andgraduallytryingtheirbesttoreviseandimprovethoseproblems.3.2NeedsAnalysisIntheprevioussectionswehavediscussedwhatisESP.ESPisnotaspeciallanguage,butamethodoflearningalanguage,oramethodofcoursedesign.Itstartswiththequestion“WhydotheselearnersneedtolearnEnglish?”Butsomepeoplepointoutthatthisquestionalsocanbeusedforanycourse,EnglishforSpecificPurposesorGeneralEnglish.Allcoursesarebasedonaperceivedneedofsomesort(陳莉萍，2000).Inthischapter,wewillfocusondiscussingthequestionofneedsanalysis,especiallyseekinganswerstotwoquestions:Whatdowemeanbyneedsandwhatkindofinformationcanneedsanalysisprovideforcoursedesign?NeedsanalysisisthestartingpointofESPcoursedesignandoneofkeyfactorsdecidingESPcoursesucceedorfail.Therearemanykindsofneedsanalysis,butingeneralwecandivideitintotwocategories:targetneedsandlearningneeds.Theyarenotthesame.Targetneedsmeanswhatthelearnersneedtodointhetargetsituationandlearningneedsiswhatthelearnersneedstodoinordertolearn.3.2.1TargetNeeds.Atargetneedisanextensiveconceptandcontainsanumberofimportantdistinctionsinpractice.Itisagoodwaytolookatthetargetneedsintermsofnecessities,lacksandwants.1.Necessities.Thiskindofneedisdeterminedbythedemandsofthetargetsituation,thatis,whatthelearnermustknowinordertohaveaneffectivelyeffectinthetargetsituation.Thisinformationisrelativelyeasytogather.Infact,itisamatterofobservingwhatsituationthelearnerwillneedtofunctioninandthenanlysingtheconstituentpartsofthem.2.Lacks.However,toidentifythelearners’necessitiesonlyisnotenough,becausewhatESPconcernistheparticularneedsoflearner.Youhavetoknowwhatthelearnerhasknown,sothatyoucanmakesurewhichofthenecessitiesthelearnerlacks.Thetargetproficiencyneedstobematchedagainsttheexistingproficiencyofthelearners.Thegapbetweenthetwocanbereferredtoasthelearner’slacks(Hutchinson,Waters&Breen,1979).3.Wants.Sofar,wehaveconsideredtargetneedsonlyinanobjectivesense.Buttheactuallearnersdonotinterposeintothequestionofthetargetneeds.Theystillhavetheirownviewastowhattheirneedsare.AsRichterich(1984)comments:“Aneeddoesnotexistindependentofaperson.Itispeoplewhobuildtheirimagesoftheirneedsonthebasisofdatarelatingtothemselvesandtheirenvironment.”Fromtheaboveaccount,wecanfindthattheanalysisoftargetneedsisnotsimplyidentifyingthelanguagefeaturesofthetargetsituation.Therearemanymethodsforgatheringinformationaboutneeds.Thefrequentlyusedareinfollows:questionnaires,interviews,observation,gatheringtextsandinformalconsultationswithsponsors,learnersandothers.Theanalysisoftargetneedsisacomprehensive,complexandimportantprocess,bettertookactioninvariouswaysinneedsorpossible.Atthesametime,theanalysisoftargetneedsisnotonceforall.Theanalysisresultsarevariable.Weneedtoconstantlyrecompose,addandconsummatethem.3.2.2LearningNeedsTillnow,wehaveconsideredneedsonlyintermsoftargetsituationneeds.Wehavebeenconsideringthequestion:whatknowledgeandabilitieswillthelearnersrequireinordertobeabletoperformtotherequireddegreeofcompetenceinthetargetsituation?Targetneedsanalyzetheapplicationoflanguageanddifferentlylearningneedsanalyzethelearningoflanguage.Ifweconsidertargetneedsanalysisasananalysisoflanguage-centred,learningneedsislearning–centred.Ifthetargetneedsisobjectiveneed,thelearningneedscanbeseenassubjectiveneed.IftheESPcourseisajourney,then,thetargetneedsanalysisdeterminethestartingpointanddestination,andthelearningneedsanalysisdeterminethetravelroutefromstartingpointtodestinationandtravelform.ThesetwoanalysisarebothindispensableinESPcoursedesign.3.2.3TheNeedsofChina’sStudentsChinaisadevelopingcountry,andbeingaChinesestudent,whatkindofcourseshouldweneed?ESPcoursedesigniscurrentlyoneoftheconcernedissuesindomesticEnglisharea.However,foralongtime,peopledonotpayenoughattentiontothedesignofESPcourse.Sincethechangesintheneedsofsoci