法律英語-沙麗金版-閱讀文本問題答案

Law

1.What’stherelationshipbetweencivilizationandlaw?

Thefairnessofanation’slawsandtheextenttowhichthelegalsystemjustlyadministersthelawsisameasureoftheenlightenment,humanity,anddegreeofcivilizationofitspeople.

2.What’slaw?Lawconsistsofthewholebodyofrulesappliedandenforcedundertheauthorityofestablishedgovernmentindeterminingwhatconductisproperandshouldbepermittedandthatwhichshouldbedeniedorpenalized.3.Canyoulisttherolesoflawinsociety?

Withoutlaw,therewouldbeanarchy.Lawisthemeansthroughwhichsocietyis

abletoexistbyprovidingprotectionfortheindividual;byestablishingandmaintainingorder,health,andsafety;byprovidingapeacefulmeansofdisputeresolution;byprovidingstabilityandflexibilityineconomicrelationsbetweenpeople;andbyprohibitingconductdestructivetosociety.4.Howcanlawbebestunderstood?Lawisbestunderstoodbyviewingthelegalsystemasaprocess——ameansofpullingtogethersociety’sneedsandgoalsandtranslatingthemintoguidesforfairnessandreasonablenessinconduct.5.WhataretheeventsthatpromotethedevelopmentoftheEnglishlegalsystem?NormanConquest.Williamreplacedthelocalandhighlyvariedsystemsoflawwithacommonsystemoflaw.

6.WhydidthepeopleinEnglandpetitiontotheKingandwhatwouldbetheresult?

Becauseoftheextremelyrigid,frequentlyoverlytechnicalproceduralrequirementsofthecommon-lawsystem,peopleweresometimesunableto

obtainfairreliefinthecourts.Intime,somepersonswhofeltthattheformof

reliefwasinadequatepetitionedtotheKingdirectly.Thispracticegaverisetoasecondcourtsystem,calledtheCourtofChancery.7.WhatwasthesituationofequitycourtsinNorthAmerica?

Americancourtsystemsinthenineteenthcenturyresultedinsimplificationofjudicialproceduresandeliminationofequitycourtsasseparatecourtsinmost

states.

8.WasthestatutesdevelopedfastinNorthAmerica?Why?9.Whatarethedisadvantagesofstatuesandtheadvantagesofthecommonlawrules?

10.Whohasthepowertomaketheordinances?

Thelegislativebodyofamunicipalcorporation

LegalSystem

1.WhatistherelationshipbetweenthecivillawsystemandRomanLaw?ThecivillawisbasedonRomanLaw.

2.WhoistheJustinianandwhatishiscontribution?ByzantiumEmperor.Compilingcodesaftertheenthronement

3.WhichistheprimarysourceoflawinEurope,RomanLaworlocallaws?Localcustoms

4.Whywastheconceptofcodificationdevelopedinthe17thand18thcenturies?AsanexpressionofbothNaturalLawandtheideasoftheEnlightenment.

5.Whatdidtheopponentsofcodificationthinkaboutcodificationoflaw?Itsopponentsclaimedthatcodificationwouldresultintotheossificationof

law.

6.Whatisthemainfeatureofcommonlaw?

Itsinclusionofextensivenon-statutorylawreflectingprecedentderivedfromcenturiesofjudgmentsbyworkingjurists.

7.Whatisthedifferencebetweenstatutesandregulations?

Statuesareenactedbyalegislature,whileregulationsarepromulgatedbyexecutivebranchagenciespursuanttoadelegationofrule-makingauthorityfromalegislature.

8.Whereshouldpeoplegoiftheywantedtoapplyforinjunctionsbeforethe20thcentury?Why?

Courtsofequity.Onlycourtsofequityhavetheauthoritytodoit.

9.Whatisthedifferencebetweentheselectionsofjudgesincivillawcountriesandthatincommonlawcountries?Civillawjudgesareusuallytrainedandpromotedseparatelyfromadvocates,whereascommonlawjudgesareusuallyselectedfromaccomplishedandreputableadvocates.

10.Whatarethedifferencesinthecriminalproceduresofthetwomajorlegalsystems?

Ingeneral,thejudgeinacivillawsystemplaysamoreactiveroleindeterminingthefactsofthecase.Mostcivillawcountriesinvestigatemajor

crimesusingaso-calledinquisitorialsystem.Also,civillawsystemsrelymuchmoreonwrittenargumentthanoralargument.

CourtSystem

1.WhatisthemaincharacteristicofthecourtsystemoftheUnitedStates?Courtsareoperatedinbothstateandfederalgovernments.

2.Arethereanyuniformrulesforcreatingstatecourts?No.butithasageneralpattern.

3.Whatarethefunctionsoftheinferiorcourtsatthebottomofthestatejudicialhierarchy?

Tryingminorcivilcasesinvolvingsmallsumsofmoney,andminorcriminal

casesinvolvinglightpenaltiesandconducingpreliminaryhearingsinthemoreseriouscriminalcases.

4.Doallstateshavethesameterminologyforcourtsandjudges?Pleasegiveexamples.

No.Forexamples,amanwhositsonthehighestcourtofNewJerseyiscalledajusticeofthesupremecourtofthatstate,whileamanwhoholdsanequivalentpositioninNewYorkiscalledajudgeofthecourtofappeals.

5.Whatarethedutiesofthejudgeswhositonappellatecourts?

Theydonotrialwork,beingoccupiedexclusivelyinhearingappeals.Theyreviewtheproceedingsoftrialcourtsuponthebasisofwrittenrecords.Theyhearoralargumentsandreadwrittenarguments,calledbriefs,inanefforttodiscoverwhethererrorswerecommittedinthetrialcourtofsuchanatureastorequirereversalofthejudgmentoranewtrial.

6.HowmanytiersofcourtsarethereinthefederalcourtsystemintheU.S.?Whatarethey?

Therearethreelevelsofcourts:trial,intermediateappellateandtopappellate.

7.Doeseachstatehaveafederaltrialcourt?Whatdecidesthenumberofthefederaltrialcourtineachstate?EachstatehasatleastoneUnitedStatesdistrictcourt.

Thepopulationofthedistrict

8.Whattypesofcaseswillbetriedbyfederalcourts?Prosecutionsforfederalcrimescivilclaimsbaseduponfederallaw

civilclaimsbetweencitizensofcivilactions.

9.Whichauthorityhasthepowertocreatefederalcircuitcourts?Congress

10.DoestheSupremeCourtoftheU.S.reviewallthecasesappealed?DosetheSupremeCourtoftheU.S.havethepowertoreviewallthedecisionsmadeby

thestatehighestcourts?

No.Yes.

Constitution

1.Whatareusuallyestablishedinaconstitution?Aconstitutionestablishestherulesandprinciplesbywhichanorganization,orpoliticalentity,isgoverned.Inthecaseofcountries,thistermrefersspecificallytoanationalconstitution,whichdefinesthefundamentalpoliticalprinciplesandestablishesthepoweranddutiesofeachgovernment.

2.WhataretheexamplesthatshowthelimitationimposedbytheconstitutiontotheorganizationsintheUnitedStates?Anexamplefromtheconstitutionallawofnation-stateswouldbeaprovincialgovernmentinafederalstatetryingtolegislateinanareaexclusivelyenumeratedtothefederalgovernmentintheconstitution.

3.WhataretherelationshipsregulatedbytheU.S.Constitution?

Therelationshipamonginstitutionsofthestate.Inabasicsensetherelationshipamongtheexecutive,legislativeandthejudiciary,butalsotherelationshipofinstitutionswithinthosebranches.

4.Howdoyoudescribeanuncodifiedconstitution?Anuncodifiedconstitutionisonethatisnotcontainedinasingledocument,consistingofseveraldifferentsources,whichmaybewrittenorunwritten.

5.Whyisanunwrittenconstitutionnotanaccuratesynonymforuncodifiedconstitution?Becauseallmoderndemocraticconstitutionsconsistofsomewrittensources,

6.Whatdothecodifiedanduncodifiedconstitutionsrespectivelyresultfrom?Codifiedconstitutionsareusuallytheproductofdramaticpoliticalchange,suchasrevolution.Uncodifiedconstitutionsaretheproductofan“evolution”oflawsandconventionsovercenturies.

7.Isiteasytoamendaconstitution?Whyorwhynot?

No.anextraordinaryprocedureisrequiredforconstitutionalamendmentsinvolvesomeproceduresthatmakesobtainingaconstitutionalamendmentmoredifficultthanpassingasimplelaw.

8.Whathappensifthereareconflictsbetweentheconstitutionandastatuteinacountryusingcodifiedconstitution?

Allorpartofthestatuecanbedeclaredultraviresbyacourtandstruckdownasunconstitutional.

9.WhatarethesourcesofuncodifiedconstitutionofBritain?

Writtensources:e.g.constitutionalstatuesenactedbytheParliamentandalsounwrittensources:constitutionalconventions,observationofprecedents,royalprerogatives,customsandtraditions.

10.Arethereanydifferencesbetweentheconstitutionallawandstatutorylawinstatesusinguncodifiedconstitutions?

No.BothcanbealteredorrepealedbyasimplemajorityinParliament.

CriminalLaw

1.Whodoordinarypeoplethinkofcrimes?Peoplethinkofcrimesasactsthatthreatenpublicsafety,securityormorality.

Crimecanbedefinedasanti-socialconductthatissufficientlyserioustorequirestateinterventionandpunishment.

2.Whatistheaccuratedefinitionofcrime?

Acrimeisanyactoromissionthatiscontrarytothecriminallaw.

3.Whataretheelementsthatmayestablishacrime?Criminalliability,guiltymind,

4.Whatisthestandardofprooffortheprosecutiontoprovethatapersonisguilty?

Beyondareasonabledoubtthatthedefendantcommittedtheactusreusofthecrime,whileatthesametimehavingtherequiredmensrea

5.Whatdoestheactusreusinclude?

Conduct,circumstanceandconsequence

6.Willallomissionsleadtoliability?

No

7.Whatarethecircumstanceswherecriminalliabilityhasbeenimposedforanomission?

8.Whatissharedbythecasesaboutomission?

Adefendanthasacceptedorbeenplacedunderadutytoact,andhis/heromissionconstitutesafailuretodischargethatduty—theomissionisnolongerpure.

9.Inwhatkindofcasesiscausationrequired?Thedefendant’sconductcausedtheunlawfulconsequence

10.Howisthesubjectivenatureofcriminalliabilityproved?Showacriminalstateofmind

CriminalProcedure

1.Whatisthefunctionofcriminalprocedurelaw?

Thelawgoverningtheseriesofproceduresthroughwhichthesubstantivecriminallawisenforced.

2.Whatarethesourcesofcriminalprocedurelaw?

TheUnitedStatesConstitution,(2)federalstatutes(3)theFederalRulesofCriminalProcedure(d)localdistrictcourtrules(e)rulingsoffederalcourts

basedontheircommonlawdecisionalauthorityortheirsupervisoryauthorityovertheadministrationofcriminaljusticeinthefederalcourts(f)theinternalregulationsoftheDepartmentofJusticeandotheragenciesinvolvedintheadministrationofthefederalprocess.

3.Whatisaknownoffence?

Wherethepoliceconcludethatacrimemaywellhavebeencommitted,itwill

berecordedasa“knownoffence”

4.Whohasthepowertoconductinvestigationbeforearrest?Police,prosecutorialandothernon-policeinvestigations

5.Whatareusuallydoneintheprocessofbooking?

Thearrestee’sname,thetimeofhisarrival,theoffenseforwhichhewasarrestedarenotedinthepolice“l(fā)og”,thearresteealsowillbephotographedandfingerprinted.

6.Howmanytypesofcharginginstrumentsarethereinthefelonycases?Complaintinformation,indictment

7.ArethereanydifferencesbetweenFirstAppearanceandPreliminaryHearing?

8.Whatwillbedoneintheprocessofagrandjuryreview?

Determiningwhetherthereissufficientevidencetojustifyatrialonthechargesoughtbytheprosecution.Ifamajorityofthegrandjurorsconclude

thattheprosecution’sevidenceissufficient,theywillissuetheindictmentrequestedbytheprosecutor.

9.Whatarethecharacteristicsofcriminaltrial?

(a)thepresumptionofdefendant’sinnocence(b)therequirementofproofbeyondareasonabledoubt(c)therightofthedefendantnottotakethestand(d)theexclusionofevidenceobtainedbythestateinanillegalmanner

10.Howmanytypesofsentencesareusedincriminalcases?

Financialsanctions,someformofreleaseintothecommunity,andincarcerationinajailorprison

CivilProcedure

1.Howdopeopleresolvetheirdisputes?

Oneistoengagein“self-help”,bywhichyouredressthewrongpersonally.Anotheristocontactthepersonwhoharmedyouanddemandsomecompensationorotherremedies.

2.Whichwayofsettlingdisputesisacceptableinthesociety?Litigation

3.Whyislitigationapubliclyfundeddisputeresolution?

Thetaxpayersprovidethecourtroom,thejudge,andtheinstrumentalitiesbywhichthedisputeisresolved.

4.Whousuallyinitiatesacivillitigation,agovernmentoranindividual?Individual

5.Iscivillitigationtimeconsuming?Why?

Yes.Becausetherearemanymorepartstotheprocessthanthetrial,

6.Whyisthequestionofforumselectionimportant?

Thedecisionimplicatesavarietyofimportantdoctrines.Andtherearequestionsoftacticsandidealforthedefendant.

7.Whatshouldbedecidedbyaplaintiffandhis/herlawyerbeforefilingasuit?Whattoputinthecomplaint.

8.Wherecantheelementsofclaimsbefound?

Substantivelaw

9.Whatisthefunctionofcivilprocedurelaw?

Civilprocedureprovidesthemechanism—theprocess—bywhichdisputesoversuchsubstantiveclaimsareresolved.Itprovidesatheoreticallycontent-neutralmechanismforresolvingdisagreements.Itestablishesthemethodbywhichsomeonewouldvindicatearightgiventoherbythelaw.

10.Whatarethestagesincivillitigation?

Pleadings,motions,discovery,possiblepretrialadjudication,conferences,andmeetings

Torts

1.Whatarethefunctionsoftortlaw?

Thepurposeoftortsistocompensateaninjuredpartythroughtheawardofdamagesfortheinjuriesincurredduringatortiousact.

2.Whatisthedifferencebetweenatortandacrime?

Thedifferenceisthatatortisawrongagainstanindividual,whereasacrimeisawrongagainstsocietyasawhole.

3.Howdoyouprovetheintentofadefendant?Intentismostoftenprovedthroughcircumstantialevidence:thedefendant’sconduct,inthecontextofhisorhersurroundingsandwhatheorshe

presumablyknewandperceived.

4.Whataretheelementsoffalseimprisonment?(a)Intenttoconfineapersonwithinacertainarea(b)actualconfinement

(c)Awarenessofplaintiffoftheconfinementorinjurytoplaintiffduetoconfinement;and(d)Preventionofexitornosafeexitpossiblebyplaintiff

5.Whatneedstobeprovedincaseoftrespass?

Anact,coupledwiththeintenttocauseentrybythedefendant,andaninvasionoftheplaintiff’sland

6.Whatdoesstandardofcaremean?

Asageneralrule,allpersonsareunderadutytoconductthemselvesinsuchamannerasnottocreateunreasonablerisksofphysicalharmtoothers.

7.Howdoyoumakedefenseforanegligentconduct?Contributoryorcomparativenegligenceandassumptionoftherisk

8.Whatisthedifferencebetweenthetwotypesofcomparativenegligence?Purecomparativenegligencesimplymeansthatifaplaintiffis90percentat

fault,heorshecanstillrecover10percent.Anothernameforpartialcomparativenegligenceis50percentrule,whichmeansthatiftheplaintiffismorethan50percentatfault,heorshecannotrecover.

9.Inwhatsituationisthedefenseofassumptionofriskapplied?

Theplaintiff’sownactionstriggerthisdefense,whichistheplaintiff’sknowingandvoluntaryconsenttoencounteringaknowndanger.

10.Canaplaintiffgetrecoveryifthedefendanthasnofaultunderstrictliabilitydoctrine?Why?

Yes.Legalfaultstemsfromadeviationfromastandardofconductneededtoprotectsocietyanditscitizens.

Contact

1.Inwhatsituationisthereanimpliedcontract?Animpliedcontractisonethatisinferredfromtheconductoftheparties.

2.Whatisthedifferencebetweenbilateralcontractsandunilateralcontracts?

Abilateralcontractisoneinwhichthepartiesexchangepromisestodosome

futureact.Aunilateralcontractisoneinwhichonepartyactsimmediatelyinresponsetotheoffer.Theresponseisintheformofimmediateactionratherthanamutualexchangeofpromises.

3.Whatisthedifferencebetweenavoidcontractandavoidablecontract?

Avoidcontractisanullityfromitsbeginning,anddamagesdonotresult.Avoidablecontractisonethatisbindinguntilitisdisaffirmedorcanceledbythepartywiththeauthoritytodoso.

4.Whatarethekeyelementsfortheformationofacontract?

(1)thecapacityofparties;(2)offerandacceptance(3)Consideration

5.Howdoesacorporationenterintoacontract?Thelawcreatesalegalfictionthatcorporationsarepersons.

6.Aretheshareholdersofacorporationinvolvedinthecontractconcludedbythecorporation?

No.Thisdeviceallowscorporationstosueandbesuedandtoconductbusinesstransactionsasentitieswithoutinvolvingindividualshareholders.

7.Whatmaydecidethecapacityofapersontoenterintoacontract?

Theageoftheindividualorfromaparty’sbeingmentallyincapableofunderstandingtheramifications后果ofthecontract

8.Arethereanyspecialprovisionsaboutminors’makingcontract?Whatarethey?

Minorsareunderanobligationtoreturnanyconsiderationreceivedunderthecontract

9.Howcanmisunderstandingsabouttermsincomplexcontractsbeavoided?Complexcontractsoftencontainsectionsthatclearlydefinecertainterms.

10.Howdoyoudecidewhetherthetwopartiesofacontracthavethemutualagreement?

Onanobjectivestandard,andthesubjectiveintentofthepartiesisusuallyirrelevant

LawofCorporation

1.Whywasthecorporationprovedtobeanidealinstrumentfortheindustrialdevelopment?

oneself

Itcouldraiselargeamountsofcapitalfromnumerousinvestorsandyetprovidecentralizeddirectionoflargeindustrialconcerns.

2.Whohasthepowertoapprovetheindividualcorporatecharteroriginally?Statelegislatures

3.Whichstateisthewinnerintheraceofattractingcompanies?Delaware

4.Whatistheprocedurefortheformationofacorporation?

Filinganappropriatedocumentwithastateofficial,andpayingtheappropriatefee

5.Whatcancorporationsdoasartificialpersons?Theartificialpersonmayconductabusinessorbusinessesinitsownnamemuchinthesamewaythata“real”personcould.

6.Whatisthemostobviousadvantagethatacorporationhas?

Thecorporationisunlimitedlyliableforthedebtsandobligationsofthebusinessbuttheshareholdersarenot,sinceintheoryalldebtsaretheartificialentity’sobligations,nottheshareholders.

7.Whydoesacorporationhavecontinuityoflife?

Theexistenceofthecorporationisnotdependentonwhotheownersorinvestorsareatanytime.Ifshareholdersdie,ordecidetosellout,thecorporationcontinuestoexistasaseparateentity.

8.Howdoyouunderstandthesentence“thecorporationdoesnothavealimitedlifespan”?

Itdoesnotreallymeanthatallcorpor