二語習(xí)得-20課件

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch

xxWewilllimitourselvestothepost-warperiod,whichhasseenthedevelopmentoftheorizingaboutsecondlanguagelearningfromanadjuncttolanguagepedagogy,toanautonomousfieldofresearch.Theperiodsincethe1950scanitselfbedividedintothreemainphases. 1.1950-1960 2. 1970 3.1980-1990

30xxII.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch Wewillstartwiththe1950sand1960sandashortdescriptionofhowsecondlanguageswerebelievedtobelearntatthetime.Wewillthendescribetheimpactofthe‘Chomskyanrevolution’inlinguisticsonthefieldoflanguageacquisition,initiallyonthestudyoffirstlanguageacquisition,andsubsequentlythatofsecondlanguageacquisition.

30+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomskyanRevolution以轉(zhuǎn)換–生成語法著稱的喬式語言結(jié)構(gòu)理論。1957年因他的《句法結(jié)構(gòu)》的發(fā)表而使語言學(xué)研究革命化。到60年代中期，Chomsky開始強調(diào)語言對研究人類心靈所起的關(guān)鍵作用。他認為語言學(xué)應(yīng)視為認知心理學(xué)的一個分支，這一觀點主要在《語言與心理》中作了論證。正是他思想的這一方面廣泛吸引了語言學(xué)以外的學(xué)者，特別是在哲學(xué)界和心理學(xué)界。

31TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTGGrammar(transformational-generativegrammar)AtheoryofgrammarwhichwasproposedbytheChomskyin1957.Ithassincebeendevelopedbyhimandmanyotherlinguists.Chomskyattemptedtoprovideamodelforthedescriptionofalllanguages.ATGgrammartriestoshow,withasystemofrules,theknowledgewhichanativespeakerofalanguageusesinforminggrammaticalsentences.轉(zhuǎn)換生成語法試圖用一套規(guī)則把操本族語者用以產(chǎn)生合乎語法的句子的知識顯示出來.32

S

NP

VPDETNV

NP

ThepoliceraisehisrevolverNDETTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch1.The1950sand1960sInthe1950sandearly1960s,theorizingaboutlanguagelearningwasstillverymuchanadjuncttothepracticalbusinessoflanguageteaching.However,theideathatlanguageteachingmethodshadtobejustifiedintermsofandunderlyinglearningtheorywaswellestablished.Atthattimethegenerallearningtheorydominantinmainstreampsychologywasbehaviorism.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorismAtheoryofpsychologywhichstatesthathumanandanimalbehaviorcanandshouldbestudiedintermsofphysicalprocessesonly(includinglanguage)Itledtotheoriesoflearningwhichexplainedhowanexternalevent(astimulus)causedachangeinthebehaviorofanindividual(aresponse)withoutusingconceptslike“mind”or“ideas”,oranykindofmentalbehavior.

34+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch行為主義是心理學(xué)的一個理論，說明人和動物的行為只能且必須從生理過程的角度來研究，受它影響而產(chǎn)生的學(xué)習(xí)理論解釋了人是如何受外部事件（刺激）的影響產(chǎn)生行為變化（反應(yīng)）而不需要“意向”或“意念”或任何內(nèi)心行為等概念。 35TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorisminLinguisticsInthebehavioristview,languageleaningisseenlikeanyotherkindofleaning,astheformationofhabits.Itstemsfromworkinpsychologywhichsawthelearningofanykindofbehaviorasbeingbasedonthenotionsofstimulusandresponse.Thisviewseeshumanbeingsasbeingexposedtonumerousstimuliintheirenvironment.Theresponsetheygivetosuchstimuliwillbereinforcedifsuccessful,thatisifsomedesiredoutcomeisobtained.Throughrepeatedreinforcement,acertainstimuluswillelicitthesameresponsetimeandagain,whichwillthenbecomeahabit.Thelearningofanyskillisastheformationofhabits,thatisthecreationofstimulus-responsepairingswhichbecomestrongerwithreinforcement.

36xxe.g.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchxxFromateachingpointofview,theimplicationsofthisapproachweretwofold.First,itwasstronglybelievethatpracticemakesperfect;inotherwords,learningwouldtakeplacebyimitatingandrepeatingthesamestructurestimeaftertime.Second,teachersneededtofocustheirteachingonstructureswhichwerebelievedtobedifficult,andaswesawabove,difficultstructureswouldbethosethatweredifferentintheL1andtheL2.

37TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchExamples:（與L1不同之處，是L2學(xué)習(xí)的困難之處）1.HestudiesEnglish2.HedoesnotstudyEnglish.3.DoeshestudyEnglish?4.Whatdoeshestudy?

37+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThelogicaloutcomeofsuchbelievesaboutthelearningprocesswasthateffectiveteachingwouldconcentrateonareasofdifference,andthatthebestpedagogicaltoolforforeignlanguageteachersthereforeasoundknowledgeofthoseareas.

38TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchResearchersembarkedonthehugetaskofcomparingpairsoflanguagesinordertopinpointareasofdifference,thereforeofdifficulty.ThiswastermedContrastiveAnalysis.

38+TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchCA:thecomparisonofthelinguisticsystemsoftwolanguages,forexamplethesoundsystemorthegrammaticalsystem.Contrastiveanalysiswasdevelopedandpracticedinthe1950sand1960s,asanapplicationofstructurallinguistics(basedonthetheoryofbehaviorism)tolanguageteaching,andisbasedonthefollowingassumptions:a.themaindifficultiesinlearninganewlanguagearecausedbyinterferencefromthefirstlanguageb.thesedifficultiescanbepredictedbycontrastiveanalysis.39

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchc.teachingmaterialscanmakeuseofcontrastiveanalysistoreducetheeffectsofinterferenceContrastiveanalysiswasmoresuccessfulinphonologythaninotherareasoflanguage,anddeclinedinthe1970sasinterferencewasreplacedbyotherexplanationsoflearningdifficulties.Inrecentyears,contrastiveanalysishasbeenappliedtootherareasoflanguage,forexamplethediscoursesystems.

40TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchCA:a.對比分析學(xué)習(xí)一門新的語言，其主要困難來自第一語言的干擾b.困難可以通過對比分析來預(yù)測c.運用對比分析來編寫教材，可以減少干擾的影響。到了70年代ErrorAnalysis取而代之。

41TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBehaviorismunderAttackStartinginthe1950sandcontinuing1960s,boththefieldsoflinguisticsandofpsychologywitnessedmajordevelopments.Linguisticssawashiftfromstructurallinguistics（basedonbehaviorism）,whichwasbasedonthedescriptionofthesurfacestructureofalargecorpusoflanguage,togenerativelinguistics（havingtheabilitytocreatesentencesbyusingaperson’sinnatelanguageability,notlearnfromothers,producingsentencesbyoneself）whichemphasizedtherule-governedandcreativenatureofhumanlanguage.ThisshifthadbeeninitiatedbythepublicationofSyntacticStructures,thefirstofmanyinfluentialbooksbyNoamChomsky.43TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructuralistlinguistics結(jié)構(gòu)語言學(xué)用來指任何一種注重用結(jié)構(gòu)和系統(tǒng)明確描寫語言特征的語言分析法。一般的索緒爾式的結(jié)構(gòu)主義思想已溶入語言學(xué)的每一個學(xué)派。但是結(jié)構(gòu)主義還有一個較狹窄的定義，指的是布龍菲爾德式的方法，即強調(diào)話段（即喬姆斯基后來稱作表層結(jié)構(gòu)的）有形特征的切分和分類程序，不怎麼考慮語言抽象的底層結(jié)構(gòu)（喬姆斯基的深層結(jié)構(gòu)）。正是這種強調(diào)遭到喬姆斯基式語言理論的強烈批評；因此對生成語言學(xué)而言，這個名詞常帶有貶意。

44TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructuralistlinguisticsAnapproachtolinguisticswhichstressestheimportanceoflanguageasasystemandwhichinvestigatestheplacethatlinguisticunitssuchassounds,words,sentenceshavewithinthissystem.

結(jié)構(gòu)語言學(xué)強調(diào)把語言作為一個系統(tǒng)來研究的重要性,并研究語音,單詞,句子等語言單位在這個系統(tǒng)中的地位.StructuralistlinguisticsisoftenusedtorefertoagroupofAmericanlinguistssuchasBloomfieldandFrics,whopublishedmainlyinthe1930sato1950s.Theworkoftheselinguistswasbasedonthetheoryofbehaviorismandhadaconsiderableinfluenceonsomelanguageteachingmethods.(Audiolingualmethodisbasedonbehaviorism;languageislearnedthroughforminghabits)語言通過形成習(xí)慣而習(xí)得.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguisticswasestablishedtofocusonlanguagestructures,primarilythosewhicharedifferentfromthoseintypicalIndo-Europeanlanguages.

Structurallinguisticswouldemphasizethatasentencehaveanounandverbinagreement,whiletraditionally,asentenceneedstobea"completethought.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguistsalsobelievedthatthelinguisticbehaviorsofthemembersofaspeechcommunitywerebasedonorderlystructuresthateachmemberofthecommunityshared.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStructurallinguisticshasbeenprovenveryusefulintheanalysisoftheprocessoflinguisticbehavior.Wenowhaveabetterwayoflearninghowpeopleacquirelanguageandalsohowspeakerscommunicatemeaningtotheirlisteners.ThistypeofinformationisusefultoteachersofEnglishasafirstorasecondlanguageandsimilarteachersoflanguagearoundtheworld.Itisalsousefulinunderstandingthewaythatdifferentculturescommunicatetheirintentionstoeachother,aswellascommunicationwhichoccurswithinasingleculture.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInthefieldofpsychology,thepre-eminentrolefortheenvironmentwhichwasarguedbySkinnerinshapingthechild’slearningandbehaviorwaslosinggroundinfavorofmoredevelopmentalistviewsoflearning,suchasPiaget’s(皮亞杰)cognitivedevelopmentaltheory,inwhichinnerforcesdrivethechild,ininteractionwiththeenvironment.

45TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchJeanPiaget,thepioneeringSwissphilosopherandpsychologist,spentmuchofhisprofessionallifelisteningtochildren,watchingchildrenandporingoverreportsofresearchersaroundtheworldwhoweredoingthesame.Hefound,toputitmostsuccinctly,thatchildrendon'tthinklikegrownups.Afterthousandsofinteractionswithyoungpeopleoftenbarelyoldenoughtotalk,Piagetbegantosuspectthatbehindtheircuteandseeminglyillogicalutteranceswerethoughtprocessesthathadtheirownkindoforderandtheirownspeciallogic.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchHisresearchesindevelopmentalpsychologyandgeneticepistemologyhadoneuniquegoal:howdoesknowledgegrow?Hisansweristhatthegrowthofknowledgeisaprogressiveconstructionoflogicallyembeddedstructuressupersedingoneanotherbyaprocessofinclusionoflowerlesspowerfullogicalmeansintohigherandmorepowerfulonesuptoadulthood.Therefore,children'slogicandmodesofthinkingareinitiallyentirelydifferentfromthoseofadults.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPiaget’sGeneticepistemology發(fā)生認知論AtermusedtodescribethetheoriesofdevelopmentalpsychologyoftheSwisspsychologistJeanPiaget(1896-1980).Helistedseveraldifferentstageswhichchildrenpassthroughinmentaldevelopment.Thefirststageisthesensorimotorstage(感覺運動期)，frombirthtoabout24months.Itlastsfrombirthtoabouttwoyearsold.

Asthenameimplies,theinfantusessensesandmotorabilitiestounderstandtheworld,beginningwithreflexesandendingwithcomplexcombinationsofsensorimotor

skills.Theycanusementalcombinationstosolvesimpleproblems,suchasputtingdownatoyinordertoopenadoor.

Andtheygetgoodatpretending.

Insteadofusingdolliesessentiallyassomethingtositat,suckon,orthrow,nowthechildwillsingtoit,tuckitintobed,andsoon.46TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThenextthreestagesareamovementtowardsmoreabstractprocesses.Duringthepre-operationalstage(前運思期),fromabouttwotosevenyears.Thechildhasmentalrepresentationsandisabletopretend,itisashortsteptotheuseofsymbols.Asymbolisathingthatrepresentssomethingelse.

Adrawing,awrittenword,oraspokenwordcomestobeunderstoodasrepresentingarealdog.Theuseoflanguageis,ofcourse,theprimeexample,butanothergoodexampleofsymboluseiscreativeplay,whereincheckersarecookies,papersaredishes,aboxisthetable,andsoon.

Bymanipulatingsymbols,weareessentiallythinking,inawaytheinfantcouldnot:intheabsenceoftheactualobjectsinvolved! 47TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheconcreteoperationalstage（具體運思期)fromaboutseventoelevenyearsistheperiodwhenchildrenbegintousementaloperationsandacquireanumberofconceptsofconservation.Thewordoperationsreferstologicaloperationsorprinciplesweusewhensolvingproblems.Inthisstage,thechildnotonlyusessymbolsrepresentationally,butcanmanipulatethosesymbolslogically.

Quiteanaccomplishment!But,atthispoint,theymuststillperformtheseoperationswithinthecontextofconcretesituations.Theyoungerchildmaystartputtingthingsinorderby,saysize,butwillquicklylosetrack.

Nowthechildhasnoproblemwithsuchatask.Sincearithmeticisessentiallynothingmorethanclassificationandseriation,thechildisnowreadyforsomeformaleducation!TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchDuringtheformaloperationalstage（正式運思期）,fromaboutelevenonwards,childrenareableodealwithabstractconceptsandpropositions,andtomakehypotheses,inferences,anddeductions.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheconcreteoperationschildhasahardtimeapplyinghisnew-foundlogicalabilitiestonon-concrete--i.e.abstract--events.

Ifmomsaystojunior“Youshouldn’tmakefunofthatboy’snose.

Howwouldyoufeelifsomeonedidthattoyou?”Heislikelytorespond“Idon’thaveabignose!”

Eventhissimplelessonmaywellbetooabstract,toohypothetical,forhiskindofthinking.Fromaround12on,weentertheformaloperationsstage.

Herewebecomeincreasinglycompetentatadult-stylethinking.

Thisinvolvesusinglogicaloperations,andusingthemintheabstract,ratherthantheconcrete.

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPiaget’sGeneticepistemology發(fā)生認知論1.birth–2sensorimotorstage(感覺運動期)2.2–7pre-operationalstage(前運思期)3.7–11concreteoperationalstage(具體運思期)4.11--formaloperationalstage(正式運思期))TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheclashofviewsaboutthewayinwhichwelearnlanguagecametoaheadattheendofthe1950swithtwopublications.ThesewereSkinner’sVerbalBehaviorin1957whichoutlinedindetailhisbehavioristviewoflearningasappliedtolanguage,andChomsky’sreviewofSkinner’sbook,publishedin1959,whichwasafiercecritiqueofSkinner’sviews.48TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomsky’scriticismscenteredonanumberofissues.1.Thecreativityoflanguage:childrendonotlearnandreproducealargesetofsentences,buttheyroutinelycreatenewsentencesthattheyhaveneverlearntbefore.Thisisonlypossiblebecausetheyinternalizerulesratherthanstringsofwords;extremelycommonexamplesofutterancessuchasitbreakedorMummygoedshowclearlythatchildrenarenotcopyingthelanguagearoundthembutapplyrules.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChomskywasincensedbytheideathatyoucouldcomparethebehaviorofratsinalab,learningtoperformsimpletasks,tothebehaviorofchildrenlearninglanguagewithoutdirectteaching,afundamentallydifferenttaskbecauseofitssheercomplexityandabstractness.49TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch2.Giventhecomplexityandabstractnessoflinguisticrules(forexample,therulesunderlyingtheuseofreflexivepronounsinEnglish),itisamazingthatchildrenareabletomasterthemsoquicklyandefficiently,especiallygiventhelimitedinputtheyreceive..

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchFurthermore,childrenhavebeenshownnottobeusuallycorrectedontheformoftheirutterancesbutratherontheirtruthvalues.Thencorrectiondoestakeplace,itseemstohaveverylittleeffectonthedevelopmentoflanguagestructure.

50exTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch2.The1970sInthe1970s

researchersfoundstrikingsimilaritiesinthelanguagelearningbehaviorofyoungchildren,whateverthelanguagetheywerelearning,itseemsthatchildrenallovertheworldgothroughsimilarstages,usesimilarconstructionsinordertoexpresssimilarmeanings,andmakethesamekindsoferrors.Thestagescanbesummarizedasfollows:Languagestage BeginningageCrying BirthCooing 6weeks51TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchBabbling 6monthsIntonationpatterns 8monthsOne-wordutterances 1year**Two-wordutterance 18monthsWordinflections 2yearsQuestions,negatives 2years3monthsRareorcomplexconstructions 5yearsMaturespeech 10years52xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchRogerBrown’sso-called‘morphemestudy’isprobablythebest-knownL1studyofthattime,andwastobeveryinfluentialforsecondlanguageacquisitionresearch.Inanin-depthstudyofthreechildrenofdifferentbackgrounds,hecomparedthedevelopmentoffourteengrammaticalmorphemesinEnglish.Hefoundthatalthoughtherateatwhichchildrenlearntthesemorphemesvaried,theorderinwhichtheyacquiredthemremainedthesameforallchildren,aslistedbelowinasimplifiedform.

53TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchPresentprogressive boysingingPrepositions dollyincarPlural sweetiesPastirregular brokePossessive baby’sbiscuitArticles acarPastregular wanted3rdpersonsingular eatsAuxiliarybe Heisrunning.

54TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchWhatisstrikingisthat,notonlydochildrenacquireanumberofgrammaticalmorphemesinafixedorder,buttheyalsofollowfairlyrigidstagesduringtheacquisitionofagivenareaofgrammar.(Ellis)

55xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchStage1:Negativeutterancesconsistofa‘nucleus’(i.e.thepositiveproposition)eitherprecededorfollowedbyanegator.wearmittennonotateddybearStage2.Negatorsarenowincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.Negatorsatthisstageincludedon’tandcan’t,usedasunitaryitems.Negativecommandsappear:ThesenosquirrelsYoucan’tdanceDon’tbitemeyetStage3:Nagatorsarenowalwaysincorporatedintoaffirmativeclauses.The‘Auxiliary+not’rulehasbeenacquired,asdon’t,can’tetc.arenowanalyzed.Butsomemistakesstilloccur(e.g.copulabeisomittedfromnegativeutterancesanddoublenegativesoccur).Idon’thaveabook Idon’thavenomoney.Paulcan’thaveone Therearen’tnomistakesinmyhomework.InotcryingNoonedidn’tcome56xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThefactthatchildrendonotseemtocorrecttheir‘errors’onthebasisofadultovertorimpliedcorrectionofchildren’sutterancesiswelldocumentedinthefirstlanguageacquisitionliterature.Thefollowingdialogueistypicaloftheuselessnessofsuchattempts.ThepsycholinguistMartinBraineoncetriedforseveralweekstostampoutoneofhisdaughter’sgrammaticalerrors.Hereistheresult:

57TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchChild: Wantotheronespoon,DaddyFather: Youmean,youwantTHEOTHERSPOONChild: Yes,Iwantotheronespoon,please,DaddyFather: Canyousay’theotherspoon’?Child: Other…one…spoonFather: Say…’other’Child: OtherFather: ‘Spoon’Child: SpoonFather: ‘Other…spoon’Child: Other…spoon.Nowgivemeotheronespoon?

58xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchFromthisnecessarilybriefandoversimplifiedaccountof1970s’firstlanguageacquisitionresearch,thefollowingcharacteristicsemerge.1.Childrengothroughstages.2.Thesestagesareverysimilaracrosschildrenforagivenlanguage,althoughtherateatwhichindividualchildrenprogressthroughthemishighlyvariable.3.Thesestagesaresimilaracrosslanguages.TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearch4.Childlanguageisrule-governedandsystematic,andtherulescreatedbythechilddonotnecessarilycorrespondtoadultones.5.Childrenareresistanttocorrection.6.Children’sprocessingcapacitylimitsthenumberofrulestheycanapplyatanyonetime,andtheywillreverttoearlierhypotheseswhentwoormorerulescompete. 59xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchThebirthoferroranalysis:Teacherswerefindingoutintheclassroomthatconstructionsthatweredifferentinpairsoflanguageswerenotnecessarilydifficult,andthatconstructionsthatweresimilarintwolanguageswerenotnecessarilyeasyeither.Example:Hedidnotcameat2:00pm.Igoingtoseeafilmthisafternoon.60xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchErroranalysisThestudyandanalysisoftheERRORSmadebysecondlanguagelearners..Erroranalysismaybecarriedoutinordertoa.identifystrategieswhichlearnersuseinlanguagelearningb.trytoidentifythecausesoflearnererrorsc.obtaininformationoncommondifficultiesinlanguagelearning,asanaidtoteachingorinthepreparationofteachingmaterials.42xx3

TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchAbasicdistinctionwasdrawnbetweenintralingual

andinterlingualerrors.

intralingualerrors

1.

overgeneralization 2.simplification 3.developmentalerrors 4.communication-basederrors 5.inducederrors 6.errorsofavoidance42+xx4TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInareviewofstudieslookingattheproportionoferrorsthatcanbetracedbacktothefirstlanguage,Ellisfoundthattherewasconsiderablevariationinthefindings,withresultsrangingfrom3percentoferrorsattributedtotheL1,to51percent,withmajorityofstudiesfindingaroundathirdofallerrorstraceabletotheL1.ErrorAnalysisthusshowedclearlythatthemajorityoftheerrorsmadebysecondlanguagelearnersdonotcomefromtheirfirstlanguage.61xxTheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchTheterminterlanguagewascoinedin1972bySelinkertorefertothelanguageproducedbylearners,bothasasystemwhichcanbedescribedatanyonepointintimeasresultingfromsystematicrules,andastheseriesofinterlockingsystemsthatcharacterizelearnerprogression.Inotherwords,thenotionofinterlanguage

putstheemphasisontwofundamentalnotions:thelanguageproducedbythelearnerisasysteminitsownright,obeyingitsownrules,anditisadynamicsystem,evolvingovertime.InterlanguagestudiesthusmovedonestepbeyondErrorAnalysis,byfocusingonthelearnersystemasawhole,ratherthanonlyonwhatcangowrongwithit.

62TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchInterlanguageThetypeoflanguageproducedbysecond-andforeign-languagelearnerswhoareintheprocessoflearningalanguage.Inlanguagelearning,learners’errorsarecausedbyseveraldifferentprocesses.Theseincludea.borrowingpatternsfromthemothertongue(Ihavelefthomefor3days.)b.extendingpatternsfromthetargetlanguage,e.g.byanalogy(furnitures,informations)

63TheRecentHistoryofSecondLanguageLearningResearchc.expressingmeaningsusingthewordsandgrammarwhicharealreadyknown(Thisplac