2023年糧食安全報(bào)告

EUROPEAN

COMMISSION

Brussels,4.1.2023

SWD(2023)4final

COMMISSIONSTAFFWORKINGDOCUMENT

Driversoffoodsecurity

ENEN

TableofContents

1.Introduction3

2.Conceptualframeworkfortheanalysisofdriversoffoodsecurity4

3.Overviewofthemainelementsofthedriversidentified7

3.1.Biophysicalandenvironmentaldrivers7

3.2.Research,innovationandtechnology11

3.3.Economicandmarketdrivers12

3.4.Foodsupplychainperformance17

3.5.Politicalandinstitutionaldrivers17

3.6.Socio-culturaldrivers18

3.7.Demographicdrivers19

4.InterlinkagesbetweendriversoffoodsecurityintheEU20

5.Short-termandlong-termtrends23

6.Focusonkeydriversinlow-incomecountries26

7.Conclusions29

8.Analysisoftheindividualdrivers32

8.1.Climatechange32

8.2.Environmentalpollution36

8.3.Soilhealth38

8.4.Pestsanddiseases42

8.5.Biodiversity47

8.6.Research,innovationandtechnology51

8.7.Intensityofproduction55

8.8.Trade57

8.9.Speculationinagriculturalcommoditymarkets61

8.10.Energyprices63

8.11.Fertilisers65

8.12.Pesticideuse67

8.13.Availabilityofworkers72

8.14.Agriculturalandconsumerfoodprices75

8.15.Farmincome77

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8.16.Accesstofinance78

8.17.Householdincome80

8.18.Competinglandandcropuses82

8.19.Supplychainperformance86

8.20.Foodlossandwaste88

8.21.Governanceandlegislativeframework91

8.22.Conflict93

8.23.Generationalrenewal96

8.24.Foodchoices98

8.25.Demographictrends101

AnnexI:Synopsisreport-Stakeholderconsultations104

References109

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1.Introduction

Todayfoodsecurityisattheforefrontofthepoliticalagenda,bothattheEUandgloballevels.

Ensuringtheavailabilityandaccesstofoodforconsumersatreasonablepricesareobjectives

setoutinArticle39oftheTreatyontheFunctioningoftheEuropeanUnion(TFEU).However,

theachievementoftheseobjectivescannotbetakenforgranted.

Foodsecuritysitsatthenexusofsociety,agriculturalproduction,climate,biodiversity,energy,

health,technology,peaceandsecurity.Withoutfarmersandfishers,thereisnofoodonour

table.Assuch,ensuringafairstandardoflivingforthesecommunitiesisofparamount

importanceforfoodproduction.Withhighpressureontheglobalfoodsystem,andasfood

productionispredominantlybasedonnaturalprocessesandyieldsareinherentlyuncertain,

vulnerabilitiesbecomemorerelevantintimesliketheoneswearecurrentlylivingin.

Overtheyears,theCommonAgriculturalPolicy(CAP)hasplayedanimportantroleinmaking

EUagricultureoneoftheworld'sleadingfoodproducers,whichinturnguaranteesthefood

securityfbr450millionEuropeancitizensandcontributestoglobalfoodsecurity.European

farmersarerespondingtocitizens1demandsregardingfoodsupply,safety,quality,and

sustainability.Europeanfarmersarerespondingtocitizens1demandsregardingfoodsecurity,

safety,quality,andsustainability.Infisheriesandaquaculture,theCommonFisheriesPolicy

(CFP)aimstoensurethatfishingandaquacultureactivitiesaresustainableandcontributeto

provideEuropeanswithnutritionalfood.

AttheheartoftheEuropeanGreenDeal,includingtheFarmtoFork,theBiodiversityandother

strategies,theEUsetoutalong-termstrategicvisiononhowtochangethewayweproduce,

distribute,andconsumefood.Thisvisionaimsatfair,healthyandenvironmentally-friendly

foodsystems,whilefurtherstrengtheningtheiroverallresilience.

Inrecentyears,theeffectsofclimatechangeandenvironmentaldegradationhaveputfood

systems,includingagricultural,fisheriesandaquacultureproduction,underincreasingpressure

allovertheworld.Foodsystemsbelongamongthemajordriversofclimatechangeand

biodiversityloss,andthesametime,foodproductionisamongthemostaffectedbythem.In

addition,foodsystemscanprovideawealthofsolutionstothesechalleneges.

AgainstthebackdropoftheglobaleconomicdisruptionsstemmingfromtheCOVID-19

pandemicandtheRussianinvasionofUkraine,tradeflowshavebeeninterrupted,andthishas

negativeimplicationsforthesupplyofkeyagriculturalcommoditiesandinputs.Thishas

furtherdestabilisedglobalfoodsystemsandintensifiedfoodinsecurityrisksandvulnerabilities

acrosstheworld.

Thisstaffworkingdocumentaimsatanalysingthemaindriversaffectingfoodsecurityfrom

boththesupplyanddemandsides()Relyingonanevidence-basedapproach,thisdocument

providesafactualassessmentofthekeydriversandtheirinterlinkages,toinformtheongoing

debateintoday9scontext.Itlooksatshortandlongertermhorizonsandlinkagesbetweenthe

drivers.Stakeholderviews,collectedthroughspecificconsultations,havebeentakeninto

accountintheanalysis.

(1)Thisdocumentdoesnotreplaceanyimpactassessmentassociatedtoanyspecificlegislativeproposal.

3

TheEuropeanCommission'sCommunicationof23March2022on'Safeguardingfood

securityandreinforcingtheresilienceoffoodsystems'putforwardanumberofshort-and

medium-termmeasurestosafeguardglobalfoodsecurity,whilesupportingEUfarmers,fishers,

andconsumersmostaffectedbyRussia'sinvasionofUkraine.Amongotherthings,measures

includesupportforafoodsecuritystrategyforUkraine,andforregionsandpopulationgroups

mostaffectedbyfoodinsecurity;asupportpackageofEUR500million,encompassingthe

mobilisationofthecrisisreserve;anamendedTemporaryCrisisFrameworkforStateaid;an

exceptionaltemporaryderogationtoallowtheproductionofcropsforfoodandfeedpurposes

onfallowland;thepossibilityforMemberStatestoreduceVATratesandencourageeconomic

operatorstocontainretailprices.

TheEU,togetherwithitsMemberStatesandtheEuropeanDevelopmentFinanceInstitutions,

isrespondingtoshort-,medium-,andlonger-termfoodsecuritychallengesthroughaTeam

Europeapproachalongfourstrandsofaction:(i)asolidaritystrandtostepupemergencyaid

andmacro-economicsupport;(ii)asustainableproductionstrandtostrengthenlocalfood

productionsystemsandresilience;(iii)atradestrandtokeepmarketsopenandgetgrainsout

ofUkraine,especiallyviaSolidarityLanesandsupporttotheUNandTurkey-ledBlackSea

GrainInitiative;and(iv)amultilateralstrandtoworkcloselywithinternationalpartners,

notablytheUN.TheSolidarityLanesintitiativetogetherwiththeBlackSeaGraninitiativehas

enabledtheexportofabove30Mtofcereals,oilseedsandrelatedproductsfromUkraine

betweenMayandNovember2022.

TheEUhaslaunchedmanyinitiativestosafeguardfoodsecurity,strengthentheresilienceof

foodsystems,andtoguaranteetheavailabilityofsupplies(2).Thisbringstangibleprogressin

achievingtheUNSustainableDevelopmentGoal'Zerohunger,(SDG2),whichfocuseson

endinghungerandmalnutrition,increasingsustainableagriculturalproduction,andreducing

itsenvironmentalimpactsamongotherthings.Moreover,theEUiscommittedtoachieving

SDG14,aswellasconservingandsustainablyusingtheoceans,seas,andmarineresourcesby

implementingtheCommonFisheriesPolicy.

2.Conceptualframeworkfortheanalysisofdriversoffoodsecurity

AttheWorldFoodSummitin1996,foodsecuritywasdefinedas'whenallpeople,atalltimes,

havephysicalandeconomicaccesstosufficient,safe,andnutritiousfoodthatmeetstheir

dietaryneedsandfoodpreferencesforanactiveandhealthylife'—).Thiswidelyaccepted

definitionpointstofourdimensionsoffoodsecurity:

?Foodavailabilityreferstotheavailabilityofsufficientquantitiesoffoodofappropriate

quality,suppliedthroughdomesticproduction,importsorfoodaid.

(2)CommissionCommunication,Contingencyplanforensuringfoodsupplyandfoodsecurityintimesofcrisis',

COM(2021)689final;CommissionCommunication,"Safeguardingfoodsecurityandreinforcingtheresilienceof

foodsystems\COM(2022)133final;CommissionCommunication,"TemporaryCrisisFrameworkfbrStateAid

measurestosupporttheeconomyfollowingtheaggressionagainstUkrainebyRussia',COM(2022)7945final;

CommissionCommunication,"Ensuringavailabilityandaffordabilityoffertilisers',COM(2022)590final.

(3)FAO,Tradereformsandfoodsecurity,ConceptualizingtheLinkages,2003,Chapter2.Foodsecurity:

conceptsandmeasurement.

4

?Foodaccessreferstoindividualshavingadequateresourcestoacquireappropriatefoods

foranutritiousdiet.

?UtilisationrelatestoanindividuaPsnutritionalwell-beingreachedthroughadequatediet,

cleanwater,sanitation,andhealthcare.

?Stabilityistheconditionbywhichthedimensionsofavailability,accessandutilisationare

sufficientlymet,andinwhichthewholesystemisstable,thusensuringthathouseholdsare

foodsecureatalltimes.Short-terminstabilitycanleadtoacutefoodinsecurity,and

medium-tolong-terminstabilitycanleadtochronicfoodinsecurity.Climatic,

environmental,economic,social,andpoliticalfactorscanallbeasourceofinstability.

Recently(*4),theHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommittee

onWorldFoodSecurityhighlightedtwoadditionaldimensions.Thefirstoneistheimportance

ofagency,whichisthecapacityofthefoodsystem'sactorstomaketheirowndecisionsabout

food.Thesecondissustainability,whichisthelong-termabilityoffoodsystemstoprovide

foodsecurityinawaythatdoesnotcompromisetheeconomic,social,andenvironmentalbases

thatgeneratefoodsecurityforfuturegenerations.

Sustainabilityisconsideredinthiswidelyaccepteddefinitionoffoodsecurity.Thementionof

tatalltimes7impliesnotonlyshort-terminstabilitiesinfoodsystems,butalsothelong-term

dimension.Short-andlong-termdriversoffoodsecurityanditsintermediaryoutcomes,are

highlyinterlinked.Whilelong-termdriversdeterminetrends,short-termshocksarepartofthis

trendandoftenbearlong-termconsequences.Long-termdriverscanthemselvescauseshort

termshocks-thedroughtsin2022areasadexample.Policyresponsestoshort-termshocks

mustconsiderlong-termconsequencesandgoals.

FoodavailabilityisnotatriskintheEUtoday.TheEUislargelyself-sufficientforkey

agriculturalproductsandachievesastableoverallfoodexportsurplus.Itisamainwheatand

barleyexporter,andlargelyabletocoveritsownconsumptionneedsforotherstaplecrops,

suchasmaizeandsugar.TheEUisalsolargelyself-sufficientforanimalproducts,including

dairyandmeat,withthenotableexceptionofseafood.

However,thecurrentfoodpriceinflation,estimatedat18%inOctober2022(5),endangersfood

affordabilityforthemostvulnerablehouseholds.Asaresult,householdsspendalargershare

oftheirbudgetsonfood,potentiallycompromisingthedietqualityiftheyswitchedtoproducts

thatcontainmorecalorieswhilebeingpoorerinmicronutrients.Whilethemostsevereforms

ofhunger,includingundernourishment,arerareintheEU,self-reportedmoderateorsevere

foodinsecurityintheEUincreasedbetween2019and2020.Thegrowingfoodpriceinflation

hasmadethesituationworse,andaggravatestheincreasedpressureonhouseholds9incomes,

alongsideenergycosts,fuelcosts,etc.

(4)HLPE.2020.Foodsecurityandnutrition:buildingaglobalnarrativetowards2030.AreportbytheHighLevel

PanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionoftheCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity,Rome.

(5)EurostatHICP-monthlydata(annualrateofchange)

5

Globally,acutefoodinsecurityisincreasing(6)andaffectedupto222millionpeoplein53

countries/territoriesinmid-2022.Thesituationislikelytodeterioratefurtherinmanycountries

and'hungerhotspots5(7).Soaringfoodpricesareespeciallyaffectingthepooresthouseholds

indevelopingcountriesastheyoftenspendmorethan50%oftheirincomeonfood.An

estimated3.1billionpeople(42%oftheworldpopulation)couldnotaffordahealthydietin

2020(8).Foodinsecurityincreaseshumanitarianneedsandfuelssocialunrest,instability,and

conflict,andviceversa.Itcanalsoweakentherespectofhumanrightsandexacerbategender

inequality.

Figure1illustratestheconceptualframeworkusedforthisanalysisofthedriversoffood

securitywithintheEU.Itbuildsuponpreviouswork,inparticulartheHighLevelPanelof

Experts'(9)conceptualframeworkoffoodsystemsfordietsandnutrition.

AsformulatedbytheFAO(10),asustainablefoodsystemdeliversfoodsecurityandnutrition

forallinsuchawaythattheeconomic,social,andenvironmentalbasestogeneratefood

securityandnutritionforfuturegenerationsarenotcompromised.Asustainablefoodsystem

shouldthusensureandcontributetoallelementsofenvironmental,social,andeconomic

sustainability.Therearesevenmaincategoriesofdriversthataffecttheabilityoffoodsystems

todeliverhealthyandsustainabledietsforall,whileencompassingalltheelements

(environment,people,inputs,processes,infrastructures,institutions,etc.)andactivitiesthat

relatetotheproduction,processing,distribution,preparationandconsumptionoffood,andthe

outputs.Thesearebiophysicalandenvironmentaldrivers;researchandinnovation,and

technology;economicandmarketdrivers;foodvaluechainperformancespoliticaland

institutionaldrivers;socio-culturaldrivers,anddemographicdrivers.Thisanalysisfocusses

onthedriversthatareespeciallyrelevantfbrensuringtheEU'sfoodsecuritytodayand

tomoiTow.

Thedrivers(mainly)affectthefoodsecurityatdifferentlevelsandwithadifferentmagnitude.

Someshapem6rcra-levelconditionsinwhichourfoodsystemsexist.Otherdriversaffectthe

foodsupplychain,i.e.foodproductionsystemsaswellasallotheractivitiesthatmovefood

fromproductiontoconsumption,whilesomeothersdirectlyaffectindividualsandhouseholds

andshapethewayinwhichconsumersacquire,prepareandconsumefood.

Thedriversandunderlyingtrends,suchasextremeweatherpatterns,biodiversityloss,higher

inputcosts-justtonameafew-areprofoundlyinterconnectedandinteractwitheachotherin

multifacetedwaysacrossthefoodsystem.

(6)GlobalReportonFoodCrisis2022,Mid-yearUpdate

(7)HungerHotspots(September2022),FAO-WFP

(8)TheStateofFoodSecurityandNutritionintheWorldreport(2022)

(9)Nutritionandfoodsystems.AreportbytheHighLevelPanelofExpertsonFoodSecurityandNutritionof

theCommitteeonWorldFoodSecurity.September2017.HLPEReport12.Foodsecurityandnutrition:

buildingaglobalnarrativetowards2030()

(10)hUps:〃research-and-innovalion.cc.curop&eu/slnUcgy/suppoil-policy-making/scicnlific-suppoil-eu-

policies/group-chi〉f-$cienlific-advisors/lowards-suslaiuable-food-(ystemen

https:〃/3/ca2079en/CA2079EN.pdf

6

Aconceptthatrecognisesthecomplexinterlinkagesbetweenmanyofthedriversoffood

securitydescribedinthisanalysisisthe"OneHealthapproach9that6isanintegrated,unifying

approachthataimstosustainablybalanceandoptimisethehealthofhumans,animals,plants,

andecosystems.Itrecognisesthatthehealthofhumans,domesticandwildanimals,plantsand

thewiderenvironment(includingecosystems)arecloselylinkedandinterdependent.

?PHYSICALftTECMMOtOGYECOHCMMC1FOOOWU.UEPOLFDCALtSOCIODEMOGRAPMC

aIMMOVArKMttAAKCTCHAMMSTITUnOHAA.CULTIMULMtWtS

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Figure1:ConceptualframeworkfbrtheanalysisofdriversaffectingfoodsecurityintheEUasdiscussedinthe

StaffWorkingDocument.

3.Overviewofthemainelementsofthedriversidentified

3.1.Biophysicalandenvironmentaldrivers

Soil,water,biodiversity,andairarebasicrequirementsfbrfoodproduction.Biophysicaland

environmentaldriversleaveamajorimprintonthelandasEU'smajorresourceforfood

production,inducinglandcoverandland-usechangesandthusaffectingfoodproduction

systems.Thisanalysishasidentifiedthatthecurrenthighinputintensiveagriculturalmodel,

basedonchemicalpesticides,islikelytoposeafoodsecuritythreatinthemediumtermdueto

alossofbiodiversity,thelikelyincreaseinpests,declineinsoilhealthandlossofpollinators

whichareessentialtoagriculturalproduction.

DifferentlandusescompeteintheEU:housing,infrastructure,energygeneration,tourismand

recreation,agriculture,etc.Allofwhichhaveimplicationsintermsofareaavailablefbr

agriculturalproduction.Promotingamixtureofsystemsallowingforsustainablesoil

management,agricultureuseandotherusesinparallel,canhelpalleviatethetension.

Agriculturallandisallocatedacrossdifferentusesandobjectivesincludinganimalrearingor

theproductionofdifferentcropsforfood,animalfeed,bio-basedproductsorbiofuels.

In2020,accordingtothelastEurostatIntegratedFarmStatistics(IFS)census,61%of

agriculturallandisusedasarableland,31%iscoveredbypermanentgrassland,whiletherest

7

isusedforpermanentcrops.Inthelastmarketingyear,morethanhalf(56%)ofthesurface

devotedtoarablelandwasusedforfeed,while28%isusedforfoodand7%forbiofuels(these

sharesdependoncropchoices,productqualityandmarketdemand).

Enhancingtheresilienceofprimaryproductionsystemstosustainfoodsecurityrequiresa

multi-dimensionalandinteractingapproach.Thisincludesactionaimedatreducingpollution

andchemicalinputs,closingnutrientcycles,fosteringbiodiversity,sustainableuseoffreshand

marinewatersandsoilhealth,reversingpollinatordecline,aswellasbetterprotectionagainst

climatechangewhilemaintainingvitalecosystemservices.TheIntergovernmentalPanelon

ClimateChange(2022)notesthat"optionsthatpromoteintensificationofproductionhavebeen

widelyadoptedinagriculturefbrclimatechangeadaptation,butwithpotentialnegativeeffects.

Integratedandsystems-orientedsolutionstoalleviatecompetitionandtrade-offsbetween

mitigationandadaptationwillreinforcelong-termresilienceandequityinwaterandfood

systems"(H).

Primaryproductionandthewholefoodsupplychainarehighlyvulnerabletotheimpactsof

climatechangeandbiodiversityloss.Changesinweatherpatternsinducedbyclimatechange

arealreadyjeopardisingfoodproductioninEurope,andtheimpactswillworseninthecoming

years.Theconsequencesforregionalagricultureproductionandfoodhabitswillbesignificant.

Furthermore,thelargestsocio-economicandfoodsecurityimpactswilloccurinregionswhere

thenaturalresourcesneededforproductionareunderparticularstress.

Formarinefisheries,theoverallexploitationratedecreased,whilebiomassofstocksincreased,

intheNorth-EastAtlanticovertheperiod2003-2020.Still,manystocksareoverfishedand/or

outsidesafebiologicallimitsorstilllackfullscientificassessment(STECF,2022).The

situationregardingstocksintheMediterraneanandBlackSeasremainschallengingwithannual

exploitationratestwicetheoptimalonesovertheperiod2003-2019.Improvementstofish

stocksshouldresultinslightincreasesinfuturefishingopportunities,whichwouldimprovethe

resilienceoftheEUfishingfleet.Yet,adverseeffectsfromclimatechangewillincreasingly

affectfishstocks,whilekeystressors,suchashumanimpactsonmarinebiodiversity,pollution,

andinvasivealienspecies,shouldbeaddressedasamatterofurgencytohelpcomprehensively

addressthecrisisandhelpsustainfishstocks.

AroundonethirdoftheEUareasuffersfromwaterstressandwarming.Thisisespeciallythe

caseinSouthernEuropeandtheMediterraneanregion,whichisseriouslythreatenedby

desertification.Intheabsenceofambitiousandeffectiveglobalmitigationactions,models

forecastafurther2-5℃temperatureriseinEuropeoverthenextdecades,resultingina

northwardshiftofcurrentclimaticzones(Masson-Delmotteetal.,2022).Extremeclimatic

events,suchasseveredroughtsandheatwavesoccurwithincreasingfrequency(Vogel,2020;

Toreti,2019;Seneviratne,2021).Thisgeneratesanactualriskthatconcurringandcombined

hazardsfromclimatechange(suchasinvasivealienspecies,pestoutbreaks,andemerging

diseases,increasedseverityofwindandhailstorms)mightalreadyhitsomeoftheworld'skey

agriculturalproductionandtriggerinternationalmarketshocks,highervolatility,andprice

spikeswithinthenextfewyears.Implementingtargetedlocaladaptationstrategies,suchas

switchingtolesswaterdemandingcrops,improvingsoilhealthanditsspongecapacity,

modernisingexistingirrigationsystemsbyimplementingwatersavingirrigationtechniques,

deployingintegratednutrientmanagementplans,improvinglongtermplanning,andleveraging

(ll)IPCCAR6WGnFullReport.Ddf

8

internationaltrademayalleviatesomeoftheclimatechangeimpacts.Maladaptation,whichcan

underminelonger-termresilienceortheresilienceofotherusers,hasbeenobservedacross

manyregions,butshouldbeavoided.E.g.theuseofhigh-costirrigationinareasthatare

projectedtohavemoreintensedroughtconditions,ortheplantingofunsuitabletreespecies(12).

Environmentalpollutionyi.e.degradationofnaturalresources(air,water,soil),negatively

affectsfoodsecurity.EvidenceshowsthatozoneairpollutionreducesEUstaplecropyieldsby

5-10%(VanDingenen,2009;Mils,2018),andthatsuchareductionmightbecutbyhalfif

substantialairpollutionreductionmeasuresareimplemented.Althoughitposesaserioushealth

hazard,airpollutionfromairborneparticulatematterhasmoderate,andmulti-directional

effectsoncropproduction.Globallyfood-systemsareresponsibleforaboutathirdof

particulatematteremissions.

Agricultureisalsothemainsourceofnitrogendischargeintowatersheds.InmanyEUcountries

theuseofanimalmanureandsyntheticfertiliserscauseshighlevelsofnitrateinsurfacewaters

andgroundwater.Inadditiontopollutionfromemissionsandby-productsofhumanactivities,

potentiallyharmfulsubstancesareoftenreleasedintheenvironment,eitherintentionallyto

combatpests(e.g.pesticides)orcollaterallyaspartofwastemanagementpractices(e.g.

landfills).However,someproperlytreatedorganicwastestreamsenrichthesoilwithnutrients

andorganicmatter(e.g.manure,sewagesludge,compost,digestatefromanaerobicdigestion).

Chemicalpollutants(e.g.pesticides,nutrients,heavymetals,plasticsandmicroplastics)can

havemultiplenegativeeffectsonbothterrestrialandaquatic(freshwaterandmarine)

ecosystems,compromisethequalityofdrinkingandirrigationwater,degradethequalityofsoil

andofseafood,andhavedirectimpactsonhumanhealth.Eutrophicationinmarineand

freshwaterecosystemscanhavebroadeffectsonthenaturalinterconnectionoffoodchains,

affectingfisheriesbyreducingtheproductionathighertrophiclevels(e.g.,fish,shellfish,etc.).

Humanactivitiesatseaalsocontributetoenvironmentalpollution.Aquaculturepracticesmay

dischargenutrients,veterinaryproductsandorganicmatterthatcanleadtopollutionifnot

appropriatelymanaged.Macro-andmicroplasticisalsoreleasedintothemarineenvironment

throughlostordiscardedfishinggearsandthewearofaquaculturefacilities.

IntheEU,95%offoodisproducedonlandanddependsonsoilhealth.Intensiveagriculture

withhighchemicalinputstogetherwithunsustainabledrainageincreasedpotentialforsoil

erosion.Thespreadofpersistentpollutantsarethemaindriversofsoildegradation.Through

filteringandtransformation,soilcanaccumulatepollutantsandbecomeapotentialsourceof

pollutionforairandwater,aswellasthefoodchain.

Moreover,urbanisationandinfrastructureconstructionoftenleadstoanirreversiblelossof

fertilesoils.Unhealthysoilsarelessfertileandlessresilienttoerosionandextremeweather

events,increasingthedamagesresultingfromflooding,droughtsandlandslides,andlosingits

abilitytostorecarbon(I3).Inmanycases,itmaytakedecadesorcenturiesforthesoilto

recover.Currently,about65-75%ofEU'sagriculturalsoilsarelosingorganiccarbonduetoan

(12)IPCCAR6WGHFuHReport.pdf

(13)Byrne,K.A.,Lanigan,G.,Creamer,R.,Renou-Wilson,F.(2018).SoilsandCarbonStorage.In:Creamer,R.,

O'Sullivan,L.(eds)TheSoilsofIreland.WorldSoilsBookSeries.Springer,Cham.

/10.1007/978-3-319-71189-817

Lal,R.(2016).Soilhealthandcarbonmanagement.FoodandEnergySecurity2016;5(3):212-222

/10.1002/fes3.96

9

excessofnutrientsand/oreroding(orcompacting)and/orsufferingsecondarysalinization

(Veermanetal.,2020).Thecostsassociatedwithsoildegradation(,4)areestimatedataround

EUR15billionperyear.12millionhectaresofagriculturalareaintheEUaffectedbysevere

erosionareestimatedtolosearound0.43%oftheircropproductivityannually(annualcostof

EUR1.25billion)(Panagosetal.,2018).

Pestsanddiseasesnegativelyimpactsfoodproductionandfoodavailability.Globally,upto

40%