生物工程專業(yè)英語整理

專業(yè)英語整理緒論1、語法特點(diǎn)：（1）被動(dòng)語態(tài)多中心是客觀現(xiàn)象及事物本身，而非動(dòng)作的發(fā)出者，把論證說明的對(duì)象置于句子主語的位置，既能突出中心，又能吸引讀者的注意。英語和漢語的邏輯表達(dá)有所差別。英語表達(dá)注重行為的結(jié)果；而漢語表達(dá)注重行為的主體。翻譯時(shí)，為符合漢語習(xí)慣，往往需要改變語序。例1：Theeffectofdifferentconcentrationsofoliveoilwasstudiedontheproductionoflipaseusingfreeandalginateimmobilizedcell.Maximallipaseproductionwasobservedat1%oliveoilinbothcases(4290and41400U/l),respectively.例2：Thesamplefromtheabovestepwasloadedonpre-equilibratedSephadexG-100columnwith50mMTris–HClbufferpH8.6.Theproteinelutionwasdonewiththesamebufferata?owrateof0.2ml/min.Theactivefractionswerepooled,concentratedwithlyophilizeranddialyzedagainsttheTris–HClbuffer(50mM,pH8.6).Thisconcentratedfractionwasstoredat-20℃.（2）廣泛使用非謂語形式非謂語動(dòng)詞在句子中可以起到名詞，形容詞或副詞作用，動(dòng)詞的非謂語形式分為動(dòng)名詞,分詞,動(dòng)詞不定式。① 動(dòng)名詞用動(dòng)名詞短語取代時(shí)間從句或簡(jiǎn)化時(shí)間陳述句1)Thegeneshouldbeclonedbeforeitisexpressed.Thegeneshouldbeclonedbeforebeingexpressed.表達(dá)基因前，應(yīng)先對(duì)其進(jìn)行克隆Anobjectbecomeshot.Itisplacedinthesun.Oncebeingplacedinthesun,anobjectbecomeshot.物體放置在太陽下會(huì)變熱。Wemustdovariousexperimentsbeforeanewbio-productisdesigned.Beforedesigninganewbioproductwemustdovariousexperiments.在設(shè)計(jì)一個(gè)新的生物制品之前，我們必須做各種實(shí)驗(yàn)②分詞過去分詞短語替代從句中的被動(dòng)語態(tài)現(xiàn)在分詞短語替代從句中的主動(dòng)語態(tài)Thesuspensionofthemixtureproductedinstirredtankisledbythepumptotheseparatingdevice,wheretheunreactedresiduesofcelluloseandligninareseparatedandledintothesecondtankoftheunreactedsolidphase.③動(dòng)詞不定式Thispaperoutlinessomeofthekeyissuestobeaddressedtoachieveoptimalintegrationeitherbymodi?cationofpreceding(orfollowing)chemicalsteps,biocatalystevolutionorcombinationsoftheseapproachestogetherwithprocessengineering.（3）省略句使用頻繁(精煉)省略成分：狀語從句中的主語、全部或部分謂語；定語從句中的關(guān)系代詞which和that、從句中的助詞等；還常用介詞短語替代從句。Ifitispossible,theopen-loopcontrolapproachshouldbeusedinthissystem.If possible, the open-loop control approach should beusedinthissystem.可能的話，這個(gè)系統(tǒng)應(yīng)該使用開環(huán)控制方法。其他常用的省略形式：Asalreadydiscussed前已討論，Asexplainedbefore前已解釋，Asdescribedabove如上所示，Ifpossible(necessary)如果可能（必要），Ifso倘若如此，Aspreviouslymentioned前已提到，Whenneeded(necessary,feasible)必要時(shí)，Wherefeasible在實(shí)際可行的場(chǎng)合，Wherepossible在可能的情況下。（4）It句型和祈使句使用頻繁（準(zhǔn)確、精煉）It句型：it充當(dāng)形式主語，避免句子“頭重腳輕”祈使句:無主語，精煉。Itisveryimportant(possible,necessary,natural,inevitable)to…Ittakesverymuchtimelearning…Itisclear(possible,necessary,natural,inevitable)that…Ithappenedthat…Itmustbeadmittedthat…LetAbeequaltoB.設(shè)A等于B。Considerahigh-pressurechamber.假如有一個(gè)高氣壓氣候室。（5）復(fù)雜長(zhǎng)句使用頻繁（準(zhǔn)確、精煉）為了完整、準(zhǔn)確地表達(dá)事物內(nèi)在聯(lián)系，使用大量從句例1：Metabolicengineeringisthepracticeofoptimizinggeneticandregulatoryprocesseswithincellstoincreasethecells’productionofacertainsubstance.Theseprocessesarechemicalnetworksthatuseaseriesofbiochemicalreactionsandenzymesthatallowcellstoconvertrawmaterialsintomoleculesnecessaryforthecell’ssurvival.（6）后置定語多后置定語即位于其所修飾的名詞之后的定語，漢語常用前置定語或多個(gè)簡(jiǎn)單句來說明某概念或術(shù)語，而專業(yè)英語則更多地使用后置定語。Allradiantenergieshavewavelikecharacteristics,whichareanalogoustothoseofwavesmovingthroughwater.Allradiantenergieshavewavelikecharacteristicsanalogoustothoseofwavesmovingthroughwater.所有的輻射能都具有波的特性，與水中移動(dòng)的波的特征相似。修辭特點(diǎn)：廣泛使用一般現(xiàn)在時(shí)較多地使用圖、表和公式邏輯語法使用多although,because,but,if,once,only,suppose,asaresult,becauseof,dueto,so,therefore,thus,without等。詞匯特點(diǎn)：詞匯構(gòu)成：合成法（由相互獨(dú)立的兩個(gè)或更多的詞合成得到新詞），派生法（通過對(duì)詞根加上各種前綴或后綴來構(gòu)成新詞）后綴含義例詞-age抽象概念，如性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、行為等spillage溢出，percentage-ance，-ence抽象概念，如性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、行為等resistance電阻，difference差別-ency抽象概念，如性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、行為等efficiency效率，

frequency頻率，-ion，-tion，-sion抽象概念，如性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、行為等action作用，automation自動(dòng)化,

transmission傳輸，trypsinization胰蛋白酶消化作用-logy學(xué)論，技術(shù)technology

技術(shù)，biology生物學(xué)

，toxicology毒理學(xué)，

electrotechnology

電工學(xué)-ness性質(zhì)、狀態(tài)、程度hardness

硬度，deepness深度，brightness

亮度，roughness粗糙度2,6-biphosphate,anactivatorofglycolysis.控制過程涉及檸檬酸對(duì)磷酸果糖激酶的抑制作用。商業(yè)流程使用黑曲霉在媒體缺乏鐵和錳錳。高水平的檸檬酸生產(chǎn)也與細(xì)胞內(nèi)高濃度的果糖2,6-二磷酸有關(guān)，它是糖酵解的激活劑。Otherfactorscontributingtohighcitricacidproductionaretheinhibitionof isocitratedehydrogenasebycitric acidandthelowoptimumpH(1.7–2.0).HigherpHvalues(e.g.3.0)leadtotheproductionofgluconicacids,insteadofcitricacid.檸檬酸對(duì)異檸檬酸脫氫酶的抑制作用和對(duì)pH的抑制作用(1.7-2.0)。較高的pH值(如3.0)會(huì)產(chǎn)生葡萄糖酸，而不是檸檬酸。AlternativeprocesseshavebeendevelopedfortheproductionofcitricacidbyCandidayeasts,especiallyfromhydrocarbons.Suchyeastsareabletoconvertn-paraffins石蠟tocitricandisocitricacidsinextremelyhighyields[150–170%(w/w)ofsubstrateused];titersashighas225gL?1havebeenreached.已經(jīng)開發(fā)了由念珠菌生產(chǎn)檸檬酸的替代工藝，特別是從碳?xì)浠衔镏猩a(chǎn)檸檬酸。這些酵母菌能夠?qū)⒄炥D(zhuǎn)化為檸檬酸和異檸檬酸的aci。DS產(chǎn)率[150%~170%(w/w)]，效價(jià)可達(dá)225gL?1。SecondarymetabolitesMicrobiallyproducedsecondarymetabolitesareextremelyimportantforhealthandnutrition.Asagroupthatincludesantibiotics,othermedicinals,toxins,biopesticidesandanimalandplantgrowthfactors,theyhavetremendouseconomicimportance.次生代謝物是微生物產(chǎn)生的次生代謝物，對(duì)健康和營養(yǎng)極為重要。包括抗生素、其他藥物、毒素、生物農(nóng)藥和安尼。MAL和植物生長(zhǎng)因子，它們具有巨大的經(jīng)濟(jì)重要性。Secondarymetaboliteshavenofunctioninthegrowthoftheproducingcultures(although,innature,theyareessentialforthesurvivaloftheproducingorganism),areproducedbycertainrestrictedtaxonomicgroupsoforganismsandareusuallyformedasmixturesofcloselyrelatedmembersofachemicalfamily.次級(jí)代謝物對(duì)培養(yǎng)物的生長(zhǎng)沒有作用(雖然在性質(zhì)上，它們是生產(chǎn)生物體生存所必需的)，但它們是由某些限制產(chǎn)生的。有機(jī)體的分類群，通常是由一個(gè)化學(xué)家族的密切相關(guān)成員組成的混合物。ChemicalBuildingBlocksofCellsThreemajorbiopolymersarepresentincells:proteins,composedofaminoacidslinkedbypeptidebonds;nucleicacids,composedofnucleotideslinkedbyphosphodiesterbonds;andpolysaccharides,composedofmonosaccharides(sugars)linkedbyglycosidicbonds.細(xì)胞中存在三種主要生物聚合物：蛋白質(zhì)，由肽鍵連接的氨基酸組成；核酸，由磷酸連接的核苷酸組成。ER鍵；和多糖，由單糖(糖)組成，由糖苷鍵連接。Manymoleculesincellscontainatleastoneasymmetriccarbonatom,whichisbondedtofourdissimilaratoms.Suchmoleculescanexistasopticalisomers(mirrorimages),designatedDandL,whichhavedifferentbiologicalactivities.Inbiologicalsystems,nearlyallsugarsareD-isomers,whilenearlyallaminoacidsareL-isomers.細(xì)胞中的許多分子中至少有一個(gè)不對(duì)稱碳原子，它與四個(gè)不同的原子相連。這些分子可以光學(xué)異構(gòu)體(鏡像)的形式存在，指定為D和L。有不同的生物活動(dòng)。在生物系統(tǒng)中，幾乎所有的糖都是D-異構(gòu)體，而幾乎所有的氨基酸都是L-異構(gòu)體.Differencesinthesize,shape,charge,hydrophobicity,andreactivityofthesidechainsofaminoacidsdeterminethechemicalandstructuralpropertiesofproteins.氨基酸側(cè)鏈的大小、形狀、電荷、疏水性和反應(yīng)性的差異決定了蛋白質(zhì)的化學(xué)和結(jié)構(gòu)性質(zhì)。Aminoacidswithhydrophobicsidechainstendtoclusterintheinteriorofproteinsawayfromthesurroundingaqueousenvironment;thosewithhydrophilicsidechainsusuallyaretowardthesurface.帶有疏水側(cè)鏈的氨基酸傾向于聚集在蛋白質(zhì)內(nèi)部，遠(yuǎn)離周圍的水環(huán)境；那些具有親水側(cè)鏈的氨基酸通常向表面聚集。ThebasesinthenucleotidescomposingDNAandRNAareheterocyclicringsattachedtoapentosesugar.Theyformtwogroups:thepurines—adenine(A)andguanine(G)—andthepyrimidines—cytosine(C),thymine(T),anduracil(U).A,G,T,andCareinDNA,andA,G,U,andCareinRNA.組成DNA和RNA的核苷酸中的堿基是附在戊糖上的雜環(huán)。它們分為兩組：嘌呤-腺嘌呤(A)和鳥嘌呤(G)-和嘧啶-胞嘧啶(C)，t海明(T)和尿嘧啶(U)。A、G、T和C在DNA中，A、G、U和C在RNA中。Glucoseandotherhexosescanexistinthreeforms:anopen-chainlinearstructure,asix-member(pyranose)ring,andafive-member(furanose)ring.Inbiologicalsystems,thepyranoseformofD-glucosepredominates. 葡萄糖和其他己糖可以三種形式存在：一個(gè)開鏈線性結(jié)構(gòu)，一個(gè)六元(吡喃)環(huán)和一個(gè)五元(呋喃糖)環(huán)。在生物系統(tǒng)中，D-葡萄糖的吡喃形式OSE占主導(dǎo)地位。Glycosidicbondsareformedbetweeneithertheαorβanomer端基異構(gòu)體ofonesugarandahydroxylgrouponanothersugar,leadingtoformationofdisaccharidesandotherpolysaccharides.糖苷鍵是在一種糖的α或β失配體端基異構(gòu)體與另一種糖上的羥基之間形成的，從而形成二糖和其他多糖。Thelonghydrocarbonchainofafattyacidmaycontainnocarbon-carbondoublebond(saturated)oroneormoredoublebonds(unsaturated),whichbendsthechain.脂肪酸的長(zhǎng)烴鏈可能不含碳-碳雙鍵(飽和)或一個(gè)或多個(gè)雙鍵(不飽和)，使鏈彎曲。Phospholipidsareamphipathicmoleculeswithahydrophobictail(oftentwofattyacylchains)andahydrophilichead.磷脂是具有疏水性尾（通常是兩個(gè)脂肪?；湥┖陀H水性頭的兩親性分子。Inaqueoussolution,thehydrophobiceffectandvanderWaalsinteractionsorganizeandstabilizephospholipidsintooneofthreestructures:amicelle,liposome,orsheet-likebilayer.在水溶液中，疏水效應(yīng)和范德華相互作用將磷脂組織并穩(wěn)定為三種結(jié)構(gòu)之一：膠束、脂質(zhì)體或片狀雙層。Inaphospholipidbilayer,whichconstitutesthebasicstructureofallbiomembranes,fattyacylchainsineachleafletareorientedtowardoneanother,formingahydrophobiccore,andthepolarheadgroupslinebothsurfacesanddirectlyinteractwiththeaqueoussolution.在構(gòu)成雙層生物膜的基本結(jié)構(gòu)的磷脂雙層中，每個(gè)小葉中的脂肪?；湵舜巳∠?，形成疏水核心，以及極性頭?；鶊F(tuán)使兩面成直線，并與水溶液直接相互作用。Theαhelix,βstrandandsheet,andturnarethemostprevalentelementsofproteinsecondarystructure,whichisstabilizedbyhydrogenbondsbetweenatomsofthepeptidebackbone.α螺旋、β鏈和片狀結(jié)構(gòu)是蛋白質(zhì)二級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)中最普遍的元素，它們是通過肽骨架原子間的氫鍵來穩(wěn)定蛋白質(zhì)二級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)的。Proteintertiarystructureresultsfromhydrophobicinteractionsbetweennonpolarsidegroupsandhydrogenbondsbetweenpolarsidegroupsthatstabilizefoldingofthesecondarystructureintoacompactoverallarrangement,orconformation.蛋白質(zhì)三級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)是由非極性側(cè)基間的疏水相互作用和極性側(cè)基間的氫鍵作用所致，使二級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)的折疊穩(wěn)定在COMP中。采取整體安排，或構(gòu)象。Largeproteinsoftencontaindistinctdomains,independentlyfoldedregionsoftertiarystructurewithcharacteristicstructuralorfunctionalpropertiesorboth.大蛋白通常包含不同的結(jié)構(gòu)域，獨(dú)立折疊的三級(jí)結(jié)構(gòu)區(qū)域，具有獨(dú)特的結(jié)構(gòu)或功能特性，或兩者兼具。Theincorporationofdomainsasmodulesindifferentproteinsinthecourseofevolutionhasgenerateddiversityinproteinstructureandfunction.在進(jìn)化過程中，將結(jié)構(gòu)域作為不同蛋白質(zhì)的模塊結(jié)合在一起，在蛋白質(zhì)結(jié)構(gòu)和功能上產(chǎn)生了多樣性。Cellscontainlargemacromolecularassembliesinwhichallthenecessaryparticipantsincomplexcellularprocesses(e.g.,DNA,RNA,andproteinsynthesis;photosynthesis;signaltransduction)areintegratedtoformmolecularmachines.細(xì)胞含有大的大分子集合，其中所有參與復(fù)雜細(xì)胞過程(例如dna、rna和蛋白質(zhì)合成；光合作用；信號(hào)轉(zhuǎn)導(dǎo))的參與者都是int。形成分子機(jī)器。Thesequenceofaproteindeterminesitsthree-dimensionalstructure,whichdeterminesitsfunction.Inshort,functionderivesfromstructure;structurederivesfromsequence.蛋白質(zhì)的序列決定了它的三維結(jié)構(gòu)，這決定了它的功能.簡(jiǎn)而言之，功能來源于結(jié)構(gòu)，結(jié)構(gòu)來源于序列。EnzymesandtheChemicalWorkofCellsThefunctionofnearlyallproteinsdependsontheirabilitytobindothermolecules(ligands).Ligand-bindingsites酶和細(xì)胞的化學(xué)功幾乎所有蛋白質(zhì)的功能都取決于它們與其他分子(配體)結(jié)合的能力。配體結(jié)合位點(diǎn)Thefunctionofnearlyallproteinsdependsontheirabilitytobindothermolecules(ligands).Ligand-bindingsitesonproteinsandthecorrespondingligandsarechemicallyandtopologicallycomplementary.幾乎所有蛋白質(zhì)的功能都依賴于它們結(jié)合其他分子(配體)的能力。蛋白和相應(yīng)配體上的配體結(jié)合位點(diǎn)在化學(xué)和拓?fù)浣Y(jié)構(gòu)上是互補(bǔ)的。Theaffinityofaproteinforaparticularligandreferstothestrengthofbinding;itsspecificityreferstothepreferentialbindingofoneorafewcloselyrelatedligands.蛋白質(zhì)對(duì)特定配體的親和力是指結(jié)合的強(qiáng)度;它的特異性是指一個(gè)或幾個(gè)密切相關(guān)的配體的優(yōu)先結(jié)合。Enzymesarecatalyticproteinsthatacceleratetherateofcellularreactionsbyloweringtheactivationenergyandstabilizingtransition-stateintermediates.酶是一種催化蛋白，通過降低活化能和穩(wěn)定過渡態(tài)中間體來加速細(xì)胞的反應(yīng)速度。Anenzymeactivesitecomprisestwofunctionalparts:asubstrate-bindingregionandacatalyticregion.Theaminoacidscomposingtheactivesitearenotnecessarilyadjacentintheaminoacidsequencebutarebroughtintoproximityinthenativeconformation.酶的活性位點(diǎn)由兩個(gè)功能部分組成:底物結(jié)合區(qū)和催化區(qū)。組成活性位點(diǎn)的氨基酸不一定在氨基酸序列中相鄰，而是在天然構(gòu)象中靠近。Fromplotsofreactionrateversussubstrateconcentration,twocharacteristicparametersofanenzymecanbedetermined:theMichaelisconstantKm,ameasureoftheenzyme’saffinityforsubstrate,andthemaximalvelocityVmax,ameasureofitscatalyticpower.從反應(yīng)速率與底物濃度的圖中可以確定酶的兩個(gè)特征參數(shù):米克里斯常數(shù)Km，這是酶對(duì)底物親和力的度量;最大速度Vmax，這是它的催化能力的度量。Enzymesinacommonpathwayarelocatedwithinspecificcellcompartmentsandmaybefurtherassociatedasdomainsofamonomericprotein,subunitsofamultimericprotein,orcomponentsofaproteincomplexassembledonacommonscaffold.共同途徑中的酶位于特定的細(xì)胞隔間內(nèi)，并可能進(jìn)一步與單分子蛋白、多分子蛋白的亞基或在共同支架上組裝的蛋白復(fù)合物的組成部分相關(guān)。熒光蛋白FluorescentproteinsastoolstoaidproteinproductionIntroductionExpressionofrecombinantproteinsfromavarietyofhostorganismsisnowacommonpractice.However,productionofproperlyfoldedproteinswithhighyieldandpuritymaynotalwaysbeachieved.Issuessuchasfolding,solubility,proteinstability,transcriptionandtranslationefficiency,post-translationalprocessing,secretion,metabolicburdenandotherstressresponsesresultingfromrecombGiLnantproteinproduction,aswellasproteinpurification,needtobeaddressedinordertoobtainbiologicallyactiverecombinantproteinswithhighpurityandyield.Inthisregard,geneticallyencodedfluorescentreportersprovideamplenewopportunitiestobettertackletheseissues.SincethedemonstrationoftheAequoreavictoriagreenfluorescentprotein(GFP)asaversatilereporter,severaladditionalGFP-likefluorescentproteinswithvariouscolorshavebeendiscoveredandtheirgenescloned.Syntheticfluorescentproteinvariantshavealsobeendeveloped,exhibitingtraitsdistinctfromtheirwild-typecounterparts.ThepropertiesofselectedfluorescentproteinvariantsderivedfromtheA.victoriaGFPandtheDiscosoma redfluorescentprotein(DsRed)aresummarizedinTable1.FluorescencespectraofenhancedGFPvariantsalongwithDsRedareshowninFigure1,andfluorescenceofpurifiedproteinvariantsderivedfromDsRedareshowninFigure2.ReadersarereferredtotheworkofLabasetal.forinformationofadditionalfluorescentproteins.TheseGFP-likeproteinseachhasitsownuniqueproperties,whilesharingcommonstructural,biochemicalandphotophysicalcharacteristics.GFP-likeproteinsarerelativelysmall(25–30kDa)andtheirfluorescencemechanismisself-contained,requiringnocofactors.TheseuniquepropertiesmakeGFP-likeproteinsveryattractivetoolsinnon-invasivebiologicalmonitoringapplications.Asatooltoimproverecombinantproteinproduction,fluorescentproteinscanbeusedtomonitortheproteinproductorthecellularprocessesrelevanttorecombinantproteinproduction.MonitoringproteinproductionFluorescentproteinsarecommonlyusedasareporterforaproteinofinterest,normallybytaggingthefluorescentproteinreportertotheproteinofinterestviageneticfusion.Functionalfusionof Aequorea GFPtoabroadrangeofproteinpartnersateitherN-orC-terminushasbeenreported,andadirectquantitativecorrelationbetweentheGFPfluorescenceintensityandthetiteroreventhefunctionalactivityofthefusionpartnercanoftenbeestablished.TominimizepotentialinterferencebytheGFPtagonitsfusionpartner,itisdesirableandsometimesnecessarytoincorporateapeptidelinkertoallowsufficientspatialseparationofthetwoproteinmoietiestoassurefusionproteinstabilityandfunctionality.Flexiblelinkerslackinglargebulkyhydrophobicresidues(e.g.GSAGSAAGSGEF)arecommonlyused,whilehydrophilichelix-forminglinkerpeptideshavebeenreportedtobesuperiortoflexiblelinkersinsomecases.ToallowremovaloftheGFPtag,anenzymaticcleavagesite(e.g.enterokinaseorFactorXacleavagesites)canbeengineeredintothelinker.ItispreferredtosplicetheGFP/linkertotheN-terminusofthetargetprotein,providedsuchfusiondoesnotimpairthetargetproteinfunctionandstability.Withthemajorityoftheenzymescommonlyusedfortagremoval,thisfusionorientationenableseliminationofthetagwithoutleavingextraneousaminoacidresiduesonthetargetproteinaftercleavage.Alternatively,chemicalcleavagebasedoncyanogenbromide,formicacid,orhydroxylaminemaybeconsidered,providedthetargetproteinsarenotsusceptibletocuttingbythesechemicalagents.FurtherinformationoftagremovalcanbefoundinacomprehensivereviewbyHearnandAcosta.Inadditiontotandemfusion,insertionalfusion(i.e.byinsertingtheproteinofinterestintoGFPorviseversa)mayalsobefeasible.Recombinantproteinproductioncanbemonitorednon-invasively, insitu,andalmostinrealtime,bymonitoringculturefluorescenceusingon-lineopticalsensors.Thisinformationisusefulindeterminingtheoptimalproductharvesttimetoavoidproductdegradationandtodeviseprocesscontrolstrategiestooptimizeculture/operatingconditionstoimproverecombinantproteinproductionGFPhasalsobeenusedtomonitorrecombinantvirustitersincellcultures,andcelldensityinmicrobial,animal,andplantcellcultures;thecellgrowthinformationcanbeused,inturn,tooptimizethecultureprocessforimprovedrecombinantproteinproduction(e.g.byoptimizingthefeedingprofilesofthelimitingnutrientorthepromoterinducer,orbydeterminingtheoptimalproductharvesttime).Additionally,GFP-fusioncoupledwithflowcytometricanalysisisusefulforprofilingrecombinantproteinexpressionamongdifferentcellsubpopulations,andselectionofhighproducingcells.MonitoringproteinpurificationThefactthatGFPfluorescenceisreadilydetectablemakesitaveryattractivetoolforoptimizingpurificationofrecombinantproteins.Poppenborgetal.optimizedimmobilizedmetalaffinityseparationofahistidine-richproteintaggedwithGFPbytrackingthefluorescenceofthefusionprotein.SinceGFPisahighlyhydrophobicprotein,recoveryofGFP-fusionproteinscanbefacilitatedbyusinghydrophobicinteractionchromatography(HIC).GFPhasalsobeenengineeredtoallowaffinitypurification.ParambanetaldevelopedachimericGFPtaghavinganinternalhexahistidinesequence.SuchaGFPtagallowsefficientpurificationofGFP-fusionproteinsbasedonimmobilizedmetalaffinityseparation,aswellasmaximumflexibilityforproteinorpeptidefusionssincebothterminioftheGFPareavailable.翻譯技巧一單詞轉(zhuǎn)化（1）——詞義引申（1）詞義轉(zhuǎn)譯（引申轉(zhuǎn)譯）如遇無法直譯或不宜直譯的詞（組），應(yīng)根據(jù)上下文和邏輯關(guān)系，引申轉(zhuǎn)譯。Oxygenformsaboutonefifthoftheatmosphere.氧約占大氣的五分之一。（不譯為“形成”）Whensuglightfallsontheleavesofplantsitistransformedintochemicalenergy.當(dāng)陽光照在植物的葉子上時(shí)，就轉(zhuǎn)變成化學(xué)能（不譯“落”）Laserisoneofthemostsensationaldevelopmentsinrecentyears.激光是近年來轟動(dòng)一時(shí)的科學(xué)成就之一。（不譯為“發(fā)展”）MoreweightmustbeplacedonthepasthistoryofPatients.必須更加重視患者的病史。（不譯為“過去的歷史”Thismedicineactswellontheheart.這種藥治療心臟病療效很好。（不譯“對(duì)…起作用”Thiskindofwoodworkseasily.這種木材很容易加工。（不譯為“工作”）Thepatienthadbeengiventhreetransfusions(輸血）afterhewasadmittedintothehospital.病人入院后已輸過三次血了。（不譯為“給”）詞義具體化翻譯時(shí)，根據(jù)漢語的表達(dá)習(xí)慣，把原文中某些詞義較籠統(tǒng)的詞引申為詞義較具體的詞。Otherthingsbeingequal,ironheatsupfasterthanaluminium（鋁）.其它條件相同時(shí)，鐵比鋁熱的快。Hardmetalscanbeeasilycutwithgrindingwheels.硬金屬可以很容易用砂輪磨削。Whenwespeak,soundwavesbegintotravelandgoinalldirections.我們說話時(shí)，聲波就開始傳播，并向四面八方擴(kuò)散。詞義抽象化翻譯時(shí)，根據(jù)漢語的表達(dá)習(xí)慣，把原文中詞義較為具體的詞引申為較抽象，或詞義較一般的詞。Steelandcastironalsodifferincarbon.鋼和鑄鐵的含碳量也不相同。（把“碳”抽象化為“含碳量”）Wehaveprogressedalongwayfromtheearlydaysofelectricalengineering.電氣工程自從出現(xiàn)以來，已經(jīng)有了很大的發(fā)展。（不譯為“已經(jīng)前進(jìn)了很長(zhǎng)一段路”）Rocksmadeunderwatertellanotherstory.水下形成的巖石說明另一個(gè)問題。（不譯為“講另一個(gè)故事”）詞的搭配要注意動(dòng)詞與名詞，以及形容詞與名詞的搭配，遇到不合乎漢語的搭配習(xí)慣時(shí)，可以把動(dòng)詞或形容詞的詞義加以引申，以適合名詞。Rubber,porcelain（陶瓷）andglassarecommonlyusedtoresistelectriccurrent.橡膠、陶瓷和玻璃常常用來隔絕電流。（不譯為“抵抗電流”）Someplantshaveflowersbutdonotseed.有些植物開花而不結(jié)果。（不譯為“有花”）Thesun'sheatoffersanalmostlimitlesssourseofpower.太陽熱提供了一個(gè)幾乎取之不盡的動(dòng)力源泉。（不譯為“無限的動(dòng)力源泉”）Americanseveryyearswallow15,000tonsofaspirin,oneofthesafestandmosteffectivedrugsinventedbyman.阿司匹林是人類發(fā)明的最安全、最有效的藥物，美國每年要消耗15000噸。（不譯為“吞咽”）Alloysbelongtoahalf-wayhousebetweenmixturesandcompounds.合金是介于混合物和化合物之間的一種中間結(jié)構(gòu)。（不翻譯為“兩地間中途歇腳的客?！保㊣ndustrializationandenvironmentaldegradationseemtogohandinhand.工業(yè)化發(fā)展似乎伴隨著環(huán)境的退化。（不譯為“攜手”）Inthemicrobialtransformationofcontaminants,organismscaneither“eat”thetoxinsorbreakthemdowintheprocessofconsumingothersubstances.在對(duì)污染物進(jìn)行微生物轉(zhuǎn)化的過程中，生物會(huì)清除毒素或在消耗其他物質(zhì)時(shí)把這些毒素分解。（吃掉）Theplanforlaunchingtheman-madesatellitestillliesonthetable.那項(xiàng)發(fā)射人造衛(wèi)星的計(jì)劃仍被擱置，無法執(zhí)行。（放在桌子上）Thefurnaceeatsupfuelattherateofthreetonsperhour.爐子以每小時(shí)三噸的速度消耗燃料。（吃光）例題：試譯下列各句，注意對(duì)劃線詞的詞義作專業(yè)化引申：Rubberisnothard,itgiveswaytopressure.橡膠性軟，受壓變形。Formillionsofpeoplesufferingfromarthritis(關(guān)節(jié)炎),itistheonlythingthatworks.對(duì)于千百萬關(guān)節(jié)炎患者來說，這是惟一奏效的藥物。Porcelainiscommonlyusedtoresistelectriccurrent.陶瓷常用來隔絕電流。Zinciseasytoobtainfromitsore.鋅容易從鋅礦中提煉。Therearethreethingswehavetoknowabouteveryforceinordertobeabletounderstandtheeffectitproduced.要了解力的作用，我們必須懂得力的三要素。Thepurposeofadrilleristocutholes.鉆床的功能是鉆孔。Theenergyissosmallthatsomethingmustbedonetopreventthecompletelossofsignal.由于能量太小，必須采取措施以防止信號(hào)完全丟失。Theforesight(遠(yuǎn)見)andcoverageshownbytheinventoroftheprocessare mostcommendable（值得稱贊的）.這種方法的發(fā)明者所表現(xiàn)的遠(yuǎn)見卓識(shí)和淵博知識(shí)，給人以良好的印象。Thebookisperhapstoohigh-poweredfortechnicianingeneral.這本書對(duì)一般技術(shù)員來說也許內(nèi)容太深。Theexpenseofsuchaninstrumenthasdiscourageditsuse.這種儀器很昂貴，使其應(yīng)用受到限制。單詞轉(zhuǎn)化（2）——詞類轉(zhuǎn)換（1）非謂語譯為漢語中的動(dòng)詞一個(gè)漢語的句子往往可以同時(shí)使用好幾個(gè)動(dòng)詞，而英語的句子一般只用一個(gè)謂語動(dòng)詞，其它的動(dòng)詞就得變成非謂語形式。例如：Thereareseveraltypesofmechanismsusedforcontrollingthespeedofadrillingmachine.有幾種機(jī)械可以用來控制鉆床的轉(zhuǎn)速。名詞譯為漢語中的動(dòng)詞一般來源于動(dòng)詞名詞化結(jié)構(gòu)。DeterminationofFCCwasconductedwithfluxdataonly. 僅由流量數(shù)據(jù)確定FCC。Theflowofeclectronsisfromthenegativezincplatetothepositivecopperplate.電子是從負(fù)的鋅極流向正的銅極的。Televisionisthetransmissionandreceptionofimagesofmovingobjectsbyradiowaves.電視通過無線電波發(fā)射和接受活動(dòng)物體的圖象（3）名詞譯為漢語中的形容詞Ifso，anyonewhocontractedtheillnesswouldhavefoundampicilin(氨芐青霉素）oflittlehelp.氨芐青霉素已不靈了（4）形容詞譯為漢語中的動(dòng)詞，一般只含有動(dòng)詞意義的形容詞Generallyspeaking,neithergoldnorstonearesolubleinwater.一般說來，金子和石頭都不能溶解于水。Applyinganobjectivefunctionofoptimizinggrowthisconsistentwiththeextensiveevolutionoflivingcellstomaximizetheirperformance.應(yīng)用細(xì)胞優(yōu)化生長(zhǎng)的目標(biāo)函數(shù)擬合普遍活細(xì)胞生長(zhǎng)的數(shù)據(jù)，以最大限度地提供模型的功能形容詞譯為漢語中的名詞英語中習(xí)慣用表示特征的形容詞及其比較級(jí)來說明物質(zhì)的特性，但漢語習(xí)慣用名詞。翻譯時(shí)，可以在這類詞后加“度”、“性”等，譯為名詞。Iceisnotasdenseaswateranditthereforefloats.冰的密度比水小，因此能浮在水面上。Glassismuchmoresolublethanquartz（石英）.玻璃的可溶性比石英大的多。Thesignificantofthisisdifficulttojudgeasonlyasinglegenehasbeenexamined.對(duì)于這個(gè)單一的基因的鑒定意義作評(píng)價(jià)有困難動(dòng)詞譯成漢語中的名詞Theearthonwhichweliveisshapedlikeaball.我們居住的地球，形狀象一個(gè)大球。Inagivenperiodoftimethenewmachineproducedtwiceasmuchastheoldone.在給定時(shí)間內(nèi)，新機(jī)器的產(chǎn)量是舊機(jī)器的兩倍。Momentumisdefinedastheproductofthevelocityandaquantitycalledthemassofthebody.動(dòng)量的定義是速度和物體質(zhì)量的乘積。副詞譯為漢語中的名詞Ametabolicreaction（MR）modelforcentralcarbonmetabolismandglutamatesyntheticpathwaywasconstructed，andconsistencyofthemodelwasstatisticallyverified.建立了中心碳的代謝和谷氨酸合成途徑的模型（MR），并用統(tǒng)計(jì)方法驗(yàn)證。（8）介詞譯為漢語中的動(dòng)詞英語中表示手段、歷時(shí)、對(duì)待、致因果、空間動(dòng)向等有動(dòng)作意味的介詞，如by,in,with,around,through,throughout,to,for,into,over,past,behindetc.習(xí)慣地譯為動(dòng)詞。JohnYatesinourformerdepartmentofmolecularbiotechnologyattheuniversityofWashingtondevelopedaverypowerfuldatabasesearchprocedureforthemassesofalltrypticpeptidesinthegenomeofmodelorganismssuchasyeast.…….用于檢索典型生物如酵母基因組中大量胰蛋白酶酶解肽的3、單詞轉(zhuǎn)化（3）——詞量增減（1）為了使譯文意思明確，需要增加一些原文中無其形而有其義的詞。增加邏輯主語或邏輯賓語的名詞Thegapmodificationismotivatedbytherequirementtoremovetheartificialceilingof1,3-PD imposedbythetpideletion.要突破tpi基因缺失所造成的1,3-PD產(chǎn)率瓶頸，驅(qū)使研究者對(duì)gap基因進(jìn)行了改造……eliminatenon-productreactions消除不產(chǎn)1,3-PD的反應(yīng)在形容詞前加名詞，進(jìn)一步明確范圍ThepreferenceforYqhDoverthemoreaboveDhaTYqhD比結(jié)構(gòu)清楚得多的DhaT優(yōu)越復(fù)數(shù)翻譯時(shí)經(jīng)常加“們”、“這些”、“那些”、“一些”、“幾個(gè)”等等（2）為了敘述簡(jiǎn)潔，適當(dāng)減少詞量英文中的冠詞”a”、”the“,介詞”of“省代詞、分詞狀語等等Theonecouldthentakea cancercellanditsnormalcounterpartandlabeltheproteinsofone(thecancercell)withthelightreagentandtheproteinsofthesecond(thenormalcell)withtheheavyreagent.取一個(gè)癌細(xì)胞及其正常細(xì)胞對(duì)照體，用輕試劑標(biāo)記癌細(xì)胞蛋白，用重試劑標(biāo)記另一個(gè)正常的細(xì)胞蛋白（省代詞）翻譯技巧二句子的翻譯技巧：成分轉(zhuǎn)換、成分分譯、重復(fù)翻譯。成分轉(zhuǎn)換英語和漢語的邏輯表達(dá)有所差別。英語表達(dá)注重行為的結(jié)果；而漢語表達(dá)注重行為的主體。翻譯時(shí)，為符合漢語習(xí)慣，往往需要改變語序。在改變句子成分時(shí)，單詞詞性隨之發(fā)生轉(zhuǎn)換。成分轉(zhuǎn)換作為一種翻譯方法，其內(nèi)容和形式都比較豐富，運(yùn)用范圍也相當(dāng)廣泛。賓語譯成主語（一）介詞in的賓語譯成主語當(dāng)介詞in的短語在句中作狀語，表示與主語有關(guān)的某一方面內(nèi)容時(shí)，往往可把其賓語譯成主語，而把原來的主語譯成它的定語，介詞in省略不譯。Riversdiffergreatlyincharacter.各種河流的特點(diǎn)彼此很不相同。(character狀語，譯為主語，而原來的主語,river則譯為定語)。Goldissimilarincolourtobrass.黃金的顏色和黃銅相似。被動(dòng)句的介詞賓語譯成主語在英語的被動(dòng)句中，除表示行為主體的介詞by的短語外，其它作狀語的介詞短語有時(shí)也具有行為主體的意義。翻譯時(shí)，可以將其賓語譯為主語，介詞省略不譯。1.Arightkindoffuelisneededforanatomicreactor.原子反應(yīng)堆需要一種適宜的燃料。2.TheFahrenheitscale（華氏溫標(biāo)）isquiteinconvenient,stillitisusedinEnglandandtheU.S.A.華氏溫標(biāo)很不方便，但英美仍在使用。（三）其它動(dòng)詞的賓語譯成主語除了have之外，其它及物動(dòng)詞的賓語有時(shí)也可以譯成主語，譯法基本相同，不過動(dòng)詞除省略不譯外，有時(shí)需要與主語一起譯成定語。1.Weneedfrequenciesevenhigherthanthosewecallveryhighfrequency.我們所需要的頻率甚至比我們稱之為甚高頻的頻率還要高。動(dòng)詞need的賓語frequencies譯為主語，而其與主語we一起譯為定語“我們所需要的”謂語譯成主語對(duì)于有些描述性或名稱性的動(dòng)詞，如feature,shape,soften,differ,act,result等。英譯漢時(shí)，轉(zhuǎn)化為漢語的主語。However，theproductionofbulkchemicalfrombiomassdiffersinmanychallengingaspectsfromthebiotechnologicalproductionoffineandspecialtychemicals,e.g.largeproductionvolumes,lowproductprices,long-runningprocesses.但是，從生物質(zhì)出發(fā)生產(chǎn)大宗化學(xué)品，與生物技術(shù)生產(chǎn)精細(xì)化工和專用化學(xué)品的不同之處顯示在許多優(yōu)勢(shì)方面：如生產(chǎn)噸位大，生產(chǎn)價(jià)格低，生產(chǎn)過程連續(xù)。Theseparationusuallyaimtoachieveremovalofspecificcomponents，inordertoincreasetheaddedvalueoftheproducts，whichmaybetheresidue，theextractedcomponentsorboth.分離的目的是去除某些特殊的組分，以提高產(chǎn)品的附加值。這些組分可能是殘?jiān)?、萃取物，或二者皆有。主語譯成謂語英語中“-tion，-sh，-ment”后綴“動(dòng)詞名稱化”的名詞翻譯時(shí)轉(zhuǎn)換為漢語中的動(dòng)詞。DeterminationofFCCwasconductedwithfluxdataonly（method2）僅由流量數(shù)據(jù)確定FCCFornearlyfifteenyears，attemptshavebeenmadetoestablishPHAbiosynthesisinGMPs（基因改造植物）.將近15年的時(shí)間，都曾試圖在基因修改植物中建立PHA的生物合成（4）定語譯成謂語定語譯成謂語也是科技英語中常用的一種翻譯方法，常見的有以下三種情況。（一）把動(dòng)詞賓語的定語譯成謂語當(dāng)have的賓語移作主語時(shí)，一般需要把該賓語的定語譯成謂語，原謂語have不譯。Copperandtinhavealowabilityofcombiningwithoxygen.銅和錫的氧化能力低。動(dòng)詞賓語ability移作主語，其定語low譯為. 謂語，原謂語have省略不譯（二）把介詞賓語的定語譯成謂語把介詞賓語移作主語的同時(shí)，有時(shí)需要把該賓語的定語譯為謂語，原謂語和主語都以為定語。Gearpumpsoperateontheverysimpleprinciple.齒輪泵的工作原理很簡(jiǎn)單。（介詞賓語principle移作主語，其定語verysimple譯為謂語，原主語、謂語Gearpumpsoperate譯為定語）Radarworksinverymuchthesamewayastheflashlight.雷達(dá)的工作原理和手電筒極為相同。（三）譯為漢語主謂結(jié)構(gòu)中的謂語有時(shí)出于修辭的目的，而將某一名詞前面的形容詞，即名詞的定語與該名詞顛倒翻譯，一起譯為漢語的主謂結(jié)構(gòu)，在句中充當(dāng)一個(gè)成分。原來作定語的形容詞成為主謂結(jié)構(gòu)中名詞的謂語。Amongtheadvantagesofnumericalcontrolaremoreflexibility,higheraccuracy,quickerchanges,andlessmachinedowntime.在數(shù)控的優(yōu)點(diǎn)中有適應(yīng)性大、精度高、非加工時(shí)間短。（5）主語譯成定語翻譯時(shí)，由于更換主語，而將原來的主語譯為定語。常見的還有以下兩種情況。（一）當(dāng)形容詞譯成名詞，并移作主語時(shí)，原主語通常需要譯為定語。Mediumcarbonsteelismuchstrongerthanlowcarbonsteel.中碳鋼的強(qiáng)度比低碳鋼大得多。（由于形容詞strong譯為名詞“強(qiáng)度”并移作注意，所以把原主語譯成定語）（二）當(dāng)動(dòng)詞譯成名詞，并移作主語時(shí)，原主語一般需譯為定語。1.Theearthactslikeabigmagnet.地球的作用像一塊大磁鐵。（由于從此act譯為名詞“作用”并移作主語，所以把原來的主語theearth譯為定語）2.Thewordradarmeansradiodetectionandranging.雷達(dá)這個(gè)詞的意思是指無線電探測(cè)和測(cè)距。成分分譯成分分譯就是把原文較長(zhǎng)的句子成分，或不易安排的句子成分分出來另作處理，一般譯成漢語短句或獨(dú)立語。分譯得當(dāng)可以使譯文層次分明，簡(jiǎn)練明確，合乎漢語規(guī)范。（1）主語分譯Theveryshortwavelengthsofultrasoundmakeagreatdifferenceinwhatordinarysoundwavescan