英語語言學(xué)-講座

語言學(xué)講座Ⅰ.IntroductionⅡ.LanguageFamilyⅢ.OriginofLanguageⅣ.DefinitionsoflanguageⅤ.DefinitionoflinguisticsⅥ.ScopeoflinguisticsⅦ.SyntaxⅧ.PragmaticsⅠ.Introduction語言豐富的人要么比一般人更聰明，要么比一般人更瘋狂。

霍布斯（美）《利維坦》口者，心之門戶，智謀皆從之出。

鬼谷子（戰(zhàn)國）《鬼谷子》語言的混亂實(shí)質(zhì)上就是思想的混亂。

馬鐵丁《馬鐵丁雜文選·談文風(fēng)》對人類而言，語言是治療苦惱的醫(yī)師……

米蘭德（古希臘）《著作殘篇》言語是人類所使用的最有效果的藥方。

吉普林（英）《演說》言語之力，大到可以從墳?zāi)箚拘阉廊?，可以把生者活埋，把侏儒變成巨無霸，把巨無霸徹底打垮。

海涅（德）《法國的現(xiàn)狀》語言是工具、武器，人們利用它來互相交際，交流思想，達(dá)到互相了解。

斯大林（蘇）《馬克思主義與語言學(xué)問題》Thepenismightierthanswords.三寸之舌,強(qiáng)于百萬雄兵;一人之辯,重于九鼎之寶?！稇?zhàn)國策·東周》"語言仿佛是民族精神的外在表現(xiàn)；民族的語言即民族的精神，民族的精神即民族的語言"每一種語言都包含著一種獨(dú)特的世界觀。馮·洪堡特語言是存在之居所。海德格爾人之所以為人者，言也。人而不能言，何以為人。

穀梁赤（戰(zhàn)國·魯）《春秋穀梁傳·僖公二十二年》言是人的本質(zhì)所在,人之成其為人,就因?yàn)樗姓Z言“赫爾德

語言，人類最后的家園。錢冠連Ⅱ.ClassificationofLanguages1.Typologicalclassification⑴孤立語Isolating(Analyticlanguage)–noinflectionsorformalchanges,grammaticalrelationshipsareshownthroughwordorder,suchasChineseandVietnamese.⑵曲折語Inflectional(Synthetic)language–grammaticalrelationshipsareexpressedbychangingtheinternalstructureofthewords,typicallybychangingtheinflectionalendings,suchasEnglishandGerman.⑶黏著語Agglutinatinglanguage–wordsarebuiltoutofalongsequenceofunits,witheachunitexpressingaparticulargrammaticalmeaning,suchasJapaneseandTurkish.2.LanguageFamily19世紀(jì)，歐洲的比較學(xué)派研究了世界上近一百種語言，發(fā)現(xiàn)有些語言的某些語音、詞匯、語法規(guī)則之間有對應(yīng)關(guān)系，有些相似之處，他們便把這些語文歸為一類，稱為同族語言；由于有的族與族之間又有些對應(yīng)關(guān)系，又歸在一起，稱為同系語言，這就是所謂語言間的譜系關(guān)系?，F(xiàn)在，世界上主要的語系有七大類。LanguageFamily：語系

LanguageGroup：語族

LanguageSub-Group：亞語族（次語族）

LanguageBranch：語支

Nw-

Language：語言（語種）

Dialect：方言

Sub-Dialect：土語（亞方言、次方言）

⑴.漢藏語系Sino-Tibetanlanguagefamily下分漢語和藏緬、壯侗、苗瑤等語族，包括漢語、藏語、緬甸語、克倫語、壯語、苗語、瑤語等。⑵.印歐語系是最大的語系。Indo-European下分印度、伊朗、日耳曼、拉丁、斯拉夫、波羅的海等語族。印度語族包括梵語、印地語、巴利語等。伊朗語族包括波斯語、阿富汗語等。日耳曼語族包括英語、德語、荷蘭語、斯堪的納維亞半島各主要語言。拉丁語族包括法語、意大利語、西班牙語、葡萄牙語和羅馬尼亞語。斯拉夫語族有俄語、保加利亞語、波蘭語。波羅的海語族包括拉脫維亞語和立陶宛語。

⑶.阿爾泰語系A(chǔ)ltaicFamily

下分西阿爾泰語族、東阿爾泰語族。前者包括突闕諸語言以及前蘇聯(lián)境內(nèi)的楚瓦什語，后者包括蒙古語以及前蘇聯(lián)境內(nèi)的埃文基語。

⑷.閃含語系又稱亞非語系。Semitic-HamiticFamilyorAfro-Asiaticlanguages

下分閃語族和含語族。前者包括希伯來語、阿拉伯語等，后者包括古埃及語、豪薩語等。⑸.烏拉爾語系UralicLanguageFamily

下分芬蘭語族和烏戈?duì)栒Z族。前者包括芬蘭語、愛沙尼亞語等，后者包括匈牙利語、曼西語等。

⑹.高加索語系Caucasianlanguage

這一語系的語言分布在高加索一帶，主要的語言有格魯吉亞語、車臣語等。⑺.達(dá)羅毗荼語系Dravidianlanguages印度南部的語言都屬于這一語系，包括比哈爾語、泰盧固語、泰米爾語、馬拉亞蘭語等。此外還有一些語系，如非洲的尼日爾—剛果語系、沙里—尼羅語系、科依散語系，美洲的愛斯基摩—阿留申語系以及一些印第安語系，大洋洲的馬來—波利尼西亞語系和密克羅尼西亞語系。需要指出的是，世界上有些語言，從譜系上看，不屬于任何語系，如日語、朝鮮語等，就是獨(dú)立的語言。

還有一些語言至今系屬不明，如分布于西班牙北部和法國西南部與西班牙接壤地區(qū)的巴斯克語、古代兩河流域使用的蘇美爾語等。那么，這些不同的語言和語系是怎樣起源的呢？說同一語系語言的居民共同體又是怎樣形成的呢？不同語系及其居民之間是否在遠(yuǎn)古彼此就有聯(lián)系呢？全世界數(shù)十億人所說的成千上萬種語言是否有一個共同起源呢？這些問題在過去是無法準(zhǔn)確回答的，也曾被視為科學(xué)的"禁區(qū)"。但是近20多年來，隨著分子生物學(xué)、人類群體遺傳學(xué)和考古學(xué)、語言學(xué)的進(jìn)展，我們終于看到了解開這些"世紀(jì)之謎"的希望的曙光。這是各門科學(xué)相互滲透，新的研究方法和研究手段不斷進(jìn)步的結(jié)果。

Ⅲ.OriginofLanguageHowdidlanguagecomeintobeing?1.TheDivine-OriginTheory

Adam’snamingAndoutofthegroundtheLORDGodformedeverybeastofthefield,andeveryfowloftheair;andbroughtthemuntoAdamtoseewhathewouldcallthem:andwhatsoeverAdamcalledeverylivingcreature,thatwasthenamethereof.耶

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Adam’snamingAndAdamgavenamestoallcattle,andtothefowloftheair,andtoeverybeastofthefield;butforAdamtherewasnotfoundanhelpmeetforhim.那人便給一切牲畜和空中飛鳥，野地走獸都起了名。只是那人沒有遇見配偶幫助他。2.TheInventionTheory

⑴.TheBow-wowtheory（咆哮說/擬聲說）⑵.ThePooh-poohtheory（啵啵說/感嘆說）⑶.The“Yo-he-ho”theory（吆嘿嗬說/喘息說）⑷.TheDing-dongtheory（丁咚說/聲象說）3TheEvolutionaryTheoryThereiscertainrelationshipbetweenthedevelopmentoflanguageandtheevolutionarydevelopmentofthehumanspecies.

1.Childrenarebornwithboththoughtandlanguage.2.Thedevelopmentofthephysicalapparatusforspeech.3.Itislaborthatcreatedthenecessityforlanguage.Definitionsoflanguage1.Generallyaccepteddefinition:

Languageisasystemofarbitraryvocalsymbolsusedforhumancommunication.Thenatureoflanguage⑴Arbitrariness:Generallythereisnologicalconnectionbetweenmeaningsandsounds.Exceptionsareonomatopoeicwordscompoundwords.Thisnaturemakeslanguagehaveanunlimitedsourceofexpressions.⑵Productivityorcreativity:Muchofwhatwesayandhearwearesayingorhearingforthefirsttime.Thismakeshumanlanguagetotallydifferentfromanyanimallanguage.⑶Duality:Ordouble-structured.Languageconsistsoftwosetsofstructures,ortwolevels.Lowerlevel:soundswhicharemeaningless.Higherlevel:unitsofmeaningbygroupingorregroupingsounds.Unitsofmeaningcanbearrangedintoinfinitenumberofsentences.⑷Displacement:Languagecanbeusedtorefertocontextsremovedfromtheimmediatesituationsofthespeaker.⑸Culturaltransmission:Languageisculturallytransmitted.Alanguageistaughtandlearnedwithinaparticularculturalbackground.Ⅴ.DefinitionoflinguisticsDefinitionsLinguisticsisgenerallydefinedasthescientificstudyoflanguage.(Dai&He,p.1)Linguistics,asthenamesuggests,isthescienceoflanguageandthusisusuallydefinedasthesystematicstudyoflanguageor,adisciplinethatdescribesallaspectsoflanguageandformulatetheoriesastohowlanguageworks.(Yang,2005,p.27)Generallinguisticsvs.descriptivelinguistics(termedbyJohnLyon,inWen,p.1)Generallinguisticsprovidesdescriptivelinguisticswithageneralframeworkinwhichaparticularlanguagecanbeanalyzedanddescribed.Generallinguisticsanddescriptivelinguisticsarecomplementarytoeachother.Englishlinguisticsisakindofdescriptivelinguistics.

Ⅵ.Scopeoflinguistics1.Microlinguistics

Phonetics:thestudyofsoundsusedinlinguisticscommunicationPhonology:howsoundsareputtogetherandusedtoconveymeaningincommunicationMorphology:thestudyofthewayinwhichthelinguisticssymbolsarearrangedandcombinedtoformwordsSyntax:thestudyoftherulesgoverninghowwordsarecombinedtoformgrammaticallypermissiblesentencesSemantics:thestudyofmeaningPragmatics:thestudyoflanguageuseMacrolinguisticsSociolinguistics:thestudyofdifferentsocialaspectsoflanguageanditsrelationwithsocietyPsycholinguistics:relatesthestudyoflanguagetopsychologyAppliedlinguistics:applicationoflinguistictheoriesandprinciplestolanguageteaching,especiallytheteachingofforeignandsecondlanguagesNeurolinguistics:thestudyoftherelationshipbetweenbrainandlanguage總而言之，沒有語言就沒有思想；而有了語言，不僅思維的進(jìn)行有了倚靠，而且也促使思維出現(xiàn)規(guī)律并且反轉(zhuǎn)過來可以按照規(guī)律去思維了。

馮定《平凡的真理》語言是說出來的思想，文字是寫出來的思想，而思想只是尚未說出來或者尚未寫出來的語文罷了。

馮定《平凡的真理》PictureⅦ.SyntaxWhatissyntax?----abranchoflinguisticsthatstudieshowwordsarecombinedtoformsentencesandtherulesthatgoverntheformationofsentences.TransformationalGenerativeGrammar(TG)

Norm.Chomsky,themostinfluentiallinguistin20thcentury,someimportantworks:(1957)SyntacticStructure;(1965)AspectsoftheTheoryofSyntax;(1981)LecturesonGovernmentandBinding;(1986)Barriers(1993)AMinimalistProgramforLinguisticTheory;(1995)TheMinimalistProgram;(1998)TheMinimalistInquiry……

Criteriaongoodgrammar

ObservationaladequacyDescriptiveadequacyExplanatoryadequacyTheultimategoalforanytheoryistoexplain.TGdiffersfromtraditionalgrammarinthatitnotonlyaimsatlanguagedescription,butalsoitsexplanation.Chomskyismuchmoreinterestedinthesimilarities(languageuniversals)betweenlanguagesratherthantheirdifferences.Linguistsshouldattempttofindagrammaticalframeworkwhichwillbesuitableforalllanguages;Linguistsshouldconcentrateontheelementsandconstructionsthatareavailabletoalllanguagesratherthanonelementsthatactuallyoccurinalllanguages.TherearelikelytobeuniversalconstraintsonthewayslinguisticelementsarecombinedChomskyproposedthatthegrammarsofallhumanlanguagesshareacommonframework(UniversalGrammar).CategoriesCategoryreferstoagroupoflinguisticitemswhichfulfillthesameorsimilarfunctionsinaparticularlanguagesuchasasentence,anounphraseoraverb.Themostcentralcategoriestothesyntacticstudyaretheword-levelcategories(traditionally,partsofspeech)Word-levelcategories

Majorlexicalcategories:N,V,Adj,Prep.MinorLexicalcategories:Det,Deg,Qual,Auxi,Conj.Thecriteriaonwhichcategoriesaredetermined

MeaningInflectionDistributionNote:Themostreliablecriterionofdeterminingaword’scategoryisitsdistribution.PhrasecategoriesandtheirstructuresPhrasecategories----thesyntacticunitsthatarebuiltaroundacertainwordcategoryarecalledphrasecategories,suchasNP(N),VP(V),AP(A),PP(P).Thestructure:specifier+head+complementHead----thewordaroundwhichaphraseisformedSpecifier----thewordsontheleftsideoftheheadsComplement----thewordsontherightsideoftheheadsPhrasestructurerules

Thegrammaticalmechanismthatregulatesthearrangementofelementsthatmakeupaphraseiscalledaphrasestructurerule,suchas:NP

(Det)+N+(PP)……e.g.thosepeople,thefishontheplate,prettygirls.VP

(Qual)+V+(NP)……e.g.alwaysplaygames,finishassignments.AP

(Deg)+A+(PP)……veryhandsome,verypessimistic,familiarwith,veryclosetoPP

(Deg)+P+(NP)……ontheshelf,intheboat,quitenearthestation.SpecifierXComplementHeadXPTheXPruleNote:ThephrasestructurerulescanbesummedupasXPruleshowninthediagram,inwhichXstandsforN,V,AorP.X’TheoryXP

(Specifier)X’X’

X(complement)X(head)complementspecifierXP(Phraselevel)X’CoordinationruleCoordinationstructures-----thestructuresthatareformedbyjoiningtwoormoreelementsofthesametypewiththehelpofaconjunctionsuchasand,or,etc.----Coordinationhasfourimportantproperties:nolimitonthenumberofcoordinatedcategoriesbeforetheconjunction;acategoryatanylevelcanbecoordinated;thecategoriesmustbeofthesametype;thecategorytypeofthecoordinatephraseisidenticaltothecategorytypeoftheelementsbeingconjoined.PhraseelementsSpecifierHeadcomplementSpecifiers----Semantically,specifiersmakemoreprecisethemeaningofthehead;syntactically,theytypicallymarkaphraseboundary.SpecifierscanbedeterminersasinNP,qulifiersasinVPanddegreewordsasinAP.Complements----Complementsthemselvescanbeaphrase,theyprovideinformationabutentitiesandlocationswhoseexistenceisimpliedbythemeaningofthehead,e.g.astoryaboutasentimentalgirl;Therecanbenocomplement,onecomplement,ormorethanonecomplementinaphrase,e.g.appear,break,put…;asentence-likeconstructionmayalsofunctionasacomplementsuchasin“Ibelievedthatshewasinnocent.

Idoubtifshewillcome.Theyarekeenforyoutoshowup.”That/if/forarecomplementizers,theclausesintroducedbycomplementizersarecomplementclause.Modifiers----Modifiersspecifyoptionallyexpressiblepropertiesofheads.Sentences(theSrule)

S

NPVPSNPVPNPDetNVDetNAboyfoundtheevidence

S

NPinflVPManylinguistsbelievethatsentences,likeotherphrases,alsohavetheirownheads.Inflisanabstractcategoryinflection(dubbed‘Infl’)astheirheads,whichindicatesthesentence’stenseandagreement.InflP(=S)NPVPInflSentences(theSrule)InflrealizedbyatenselabelInflP（=S）NPVPNPDetNInflVDetNAboyPstfoundtheevidenceInflrealizedbyanauxiliaryInflP（=S）VPNPNPDetNInflVDetNAboywillfindtheevidenceTransformations

Auxiliarymovement(inversion)DoinsertionDeepstructure&surfacestructureWh-movementMoveαandconstraintsontransformationsAuxiliarymovement(inversion)InversionMoveInfltotheleftofthesubjectNP.Inversion(revised)MoveInfltoC.CCPSDetNInflVthetrainwillarriveNPAuxiliarymovement(inversion)CPSCNPInfl

DetNInflVWillthetrainearriveDoinsertionDoinsertion----InsertinterrogativedointoanemptyInflposition.CPCSNPInflVPBirdsflyCPCPCCSSInflNPInflVPNPInflVPBirdsdoflyDobirdseflyFigure-1Figure-2Figure-3Deepstructure&surfacestructureConsiderthefollowingpairofsentences:

Johniseasytoplease.Johniseagertoplease.Structurallysimilarsentencesmightbeverydifferentintheirmeanings,fortheyhavequitedifferentdeepstructures.Deepstructure&surfacestructureConsideronemoresentence:Flyingplanescanbedangerous.ItcanmeaneitherthatifyouflyplanesyouareengagedinadangerousactivityorPlanesthatareflyingaredangerous.Deepstructure----formedbytheXPruleinaccordancewiththehead’ssub-categorizationproperties;itcontainsalltheunitsandrelationshipsthatarenecessaryforinterpretingthemeaningofthesentence.Surfacestructure----correspondingtothefinalsyntacticformofthesentencewhichresultsfromappropriatetransformations;itisthatofthesentenceasitispronouncedorwritten.Deepstructure&surfacestructureTheorganizationofthesyntacticcomponentTheXPruleDeepstructuretransformationsSurfacestructureSubcategorizationrestrictschoiceofcomplementsWh-movementConsiderthederivationofthefollowingsentences:Whatlanguagescanyouspeak?Whatcanyoutalkabout?Thesesentencesmayoriginateas:Youcanspeakwhatlanguages.Youcantalkaboutwhat.Wh-movementWh-movement----Moveawhphrasetothebeginningofthesentence.Whatlanguage

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?Wh-movementWh-movement----MoveawhphrasetothespecifierpositionunderCP.(Revised)CPVPVNPwonthegameSNPInflePstNPCWhoⅧ.PragmaticsCooperationPrinciplesofconversationandfloutingoftheconversationmaximsThemaximofquantityMakeyourcontributionasinformativeasrequired.Nomoreandnoless.ThemaximofqualityDonotsaywhatyoubelievetobefalseanddonotsaywhatyoulackevidencefor.ThemaximofrelationBerelevantThemaximofmannerAvoidobscurity,ambiguity.Bebriefandorderly.Floutingoftheconversationmaximandrevealing

conversationimplicature

A:WhenisSusan’sfarewellparty?B:Sometimenextmonth.—(floutingthemaximofquantity)

A:Wouldyouliketojoinusforthepicnicon