雅思閱讀：高頻文章（21-30）匯編

NoviceandBecomingNoviceandBecominganExpertiseiscommitmentcoupledwithcreativity.Specifically,itisthecommitmentoftime,energy,andresourcestoarelativelynarrowfieldofstudyandthecreativeenergynecessarytogeneratenewknowledgeinthatfield.Ittakesaconsiderableamountoftimeandregularexposuretoalargenumberofcasestobecomeanexpert.AAnindividualentersafieldofstudyasanovice.Thenoviceneedstolearntheguidingprinciplesandrulesofagiventaskinordertoperformthattask.Concurrently,thenoviceneedstobeexposedtospecificcases,orinstances,thattesttheboundariesofsuchheuristics.Generally,anovicewillfindamentortoguideherthroughtheprocess.Afairlysimpleexamplewouldbesomeonelearningtoplaychess.Thenovicechessplayerseeksamentortoteachhertheobjectofthegame,thenumberofspaces,thenamesofthepieces,thefunctionofeachpiece,howeachpieceismoved,andthenecessaryconditionsforwinningorlosingthegame.BIntime,andwithmuchpractice,thenovicebeginstorecognizepatternsofbehaviorwithincasesand.thus,becomesajourneyman.Withmorepracticeandexposuretoincreasinglycomplexcases,thejourneymanfindspatternsnotonlywithincasesbutalsobetweencases.Moreimportantly,thejourneymanlearnsthatthesepatternsoftenrepeatthemselvesovertime.Thecomplexstrategies.Returningtotheexampleofthechessplayer,theindividualbeginstolearnpatternsofopeningmoves,offensiveanddefensivegame-playingstrategies,andpatternsofvictoryanddefeat.CWhenajourneymanstartstomakeandtesthypothesesaboutfuturebehaviorbasedonpastexperiences,shebeginsthenexttransition.Onceshecreativelygeneratesknowledge,ratherthansimplymatchingsuperficialpatterns,shebecomesanexpert.Atthispoint,sheisconfidentinherknowledgeandnolongerneedsamentorasaguide—shebecomesresponsibleforherownknowledge.Inthechessexample,onceajourneymanbeginscompetingagainstexperts,makespredictionsbasedonpatterns,andteststhosepredictionsagainstactualbehavior,sheisgeneratingnewknowledgeandadeeperunderstandingofthegame.Sheiscreatingherowncasesratherthanrelyingonthecasesofothers.DThechessexampleisarathershortdescriptionofanapprenticeshipmodel.Apprenticeshipmayseemlikearestrictive18thcenturymodeofeducation,butitisstillastandardmethodoftrainingformanycomplextasks.Academicdoctoralprogramsarebasedonanapprenticeshipmodel,asarefieldslikelaw,music,engineering,andmedicine.Graduatestudentsenterfieldsofstudy,findmentors,andbeginthelongprocessofbecomingindependentexpertsandgeneratingnewknowledgeintheirrespectivedomains.EPsychologistsandcognitivePsychologistsandcognitivescientistsagreethatthetimeittakestobecomeandependsonthecomplexityofthetaskandthenumberofcases,orpatterns,towhichanindividualisexposed.Themorecomplexthetask,thelongerittakestobuildexpertise,or,moreaccurately,thelongerittakestoexperienceandstorealargenumberofcasesorpatterns.FThePowerofAnexpertperceivesmeaningfulpatternsinherdomainbetterthannon-experts.Whereanoviceperceivesrandomordisconnecteddatapoints,anexpertconnectsregularpatternswithintheorganizationofknowledgeafterexposuretoandexperiencewiththousandsofcases.Expertshaveadeeperunderstandingoftheirdomainsthannovicesdo,andutilizehigher-orderprinciplestosolveproblems.Anovice,forexample,mightgroupobjectstogetherbycolororsize,whereasanexpertwouldgroupthesameobjectsaccordingtotheirfunctionorutility.Expertscomprehendthemeaningofdataandweighvariableswithdifferentcriteriawithintheirdomainsbetterthannovices.Expertsrecognizevariablesthathavethelargestinfluenceonaparticularproblemandfocustheirattentiononthosevariables.GExpertshavebetterdomain-specificshort-termandlong-termmemorythannovicesdo.Moreover,expertsperformtasksintheirdomainsfasterthannovicesandcommitfewererrorswhileproblemsolving.Interestingly,expertsgoaboutsolvingproblemsdifferentlythannovices.Expertsspendmoretimethinkingaboutaproblemtofullyunderstanditatthebeginningofataskthandonovices,whoimmediatelyseektofindasolution.Expertsusetheirknowledgeofpreviouscasesascontextforcreatingmentalmodelstosolvegivenproblems.HBetteratself-monitoringthannovices,expertsaremoreawareofinstanceswheretheyhavecommittederrorsorfailedtounderstandaproblem.Expertschecktheirsolutionsmoreoftenthannovicesandrecognizewhentheyaremissinginformationnecessaryforsolvingaproblem.Expertsareawareofthelimitsoftheirdomainknowledgeandapplytheirdomain'sheuristicstosolveproblemsthatfalloutsideoftheirexperiencebase.ITheParadoxofThestrengthsofexpertisecanalsobeweaknesses.Althoughonewouldexpectexpertstobegoodforecasters,theyarenotparticularlygoodatmakingpredictionsaboutthefuture.Sincethe1930s,researchershavebeentestingtheabilityofexpertstomakeforecasts.Theperformanceofexpertshasbeentestedagainstactuarialtablestodetermineiftheyarebetteratmakingpredictionsthansimplestatisticalmodels.Seventyyearslater,withmorethantwohundredexperimentsindifferentdomains,itisclearthattheanswerisno.Ifsuppliedwithanequalamountofdataaboutaparticularcase,anactuarialtableisasgood,orbetter,thananexpertatmakingcallsaboutthefuture.Evenifanexpertisgivenmorespecificcaseinformationthanisavailabletothestatisticalmodel,theexpertdoesnottendtooutperformtheactuarialtable.JTheoristsandresearchersdifferwhentryingtoexplainwhyexpertsarelesswhenusingmentalmodelstomakepredictions.Anumberofresearcherspointtohumanbiasestoexplainunreliableexpertpredictions.Duringthelast30years,researchershavecategorized,experimented,andtheorizedaboutthecognitiveaspectsofforecasting.Despitesuchefforts,theliteratureshowslittleconsensusregardingthecausesormanifestationsofhumanbias.CompletetheflowChooseNoMoreThanThreeWordsfromtheReadingPassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes1-5onyouranswersheet.Fromanovicetoan↓needtostudy1 undertheguidanceofa ↓starttoidentify3 forcaseswithinorbetweenstudymore4 waysofdoingthingscreatenew performtaskDothefollowingstatementsagreewiththeinformationgiveninReadingPassage1?Inboxes6-10onyouranswersheet,writeTRUEifthestatementistrueFALSEifthestatementisfalseNOTGIVENiftheinformationisnotgivenintheThefocusofnovices'trainingisnecessarilyonlongtermWhenworkingouttheproblems,noviceswanttosolvethemstraightWhenhandlingproblems,expertsarealwaysmoreefficientthannovicesintheirExperttendtoreviewmorethannovicesoncaseswhenflawsorlimitonunderstandingtookplace.CompletethefollowingsummaryoftheparagraphsofReadingPassage,usingNoMoreThanTwoWordsfromtheReadingPassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes11-13onyouranswerWhileexpertsoutperformnovicesandmachinesinpatternrecognitionandproblemsolving,expertpredictionsoffuturebehaviororeventsareseldomasaccurateassimpleactuarialtables.Why?Somehavetriedtoexplainthatexpertsdifferwhenusingcognitive11 Researchersbelieveitisdueto .Howeverattemptingendeavoroffindinganswersnotyetproduce 主題新手和專(zhuān)家答案1principlesand4patternsof7NOT主題新手和專(zhuān)家答案1principlesand4patternsof7NOT12humanATeleworking-ATeleworking-workingremotelyfromanoffice-issaidtohavemanybenefitsfororganisations,theenvironmentandsociety.Itprovokesmixedreactionsfromitsacolytesandthosethatexperienceitfirst-hand.Whetheryoulikeitornot,itistruetosaythatworkisnolongerdependentongeographyandthisopensuparangeofopportunitiesforworkinginnewwaysandenvironments.Thesurveysshow"thattheproductivityincreaseisnotprimarilybecauseoflongerworkinghours(asissometimessuggested).Althoughprevalent,workingmoreisjustoneofanumberofinfluencingfactors,andnotthemostimportant."Anunusualcomparisonoftheperformanceofteleworkerswithacloselymatchedcontrolgroupofnon-teleworkersfoundthatnotonlywasproductivityhigher,butalsothatabsenteeismanderrorrateswerelower.CTwootherareaswhereSUSTELhasaddedtotheeconomicimpactknowledgebaseisitseffectonabsenteeismandspaceutilisation.Inthecaseofabsenteeism,over60percentofthosesurveyedstatedthatteleworkhadenabledthemtoworkwhentheywerepreventedfromreachingaworklocation(usuallythroughillnessortransportproblems).Aroundhalfthecasesalsoidentifiedsubstantialreductionsinspacerequirements-tothepointwhereoneorganisationhadcompletelydoneawaywithacentraloffice.Changesinnon-commutingtravelonweekends:home-basesworkers,whichincludesasubstantialpopulationofpeoplewhoarenottelecommuters,spendmoretimeshoppingoutofthehomethantraditionalworkers.DHalf-timetelecommutingcouldreducecarbonemissionsbyover51millionmetrictonsaer—theequivalentoftakingallofNewYork'scommutersofftheroad.Additionalcarbonfootprintsavingswillcomefromreduced:officeenergy,roadwayrepairs,urbanheating,officeconstruction,businesstravel,paperusage(aselectronicdocumentsreplacepaper).Althoughenergyutilizationwillcontinuetogrowasweexpandourindustryandimproveourstandardofliving,efficientuseofenergywillalwaysbeofprimeimportance.Bytelecommutingtoworkinsteadofusingmoreconventionalmethods,thereisagreatpotentialtosaveenergy.Thethreemajorareaswhereenergycanbeconservedare:Vehicle-relatedmaterialsandresources;Highway-relatedmaterialsandresources;andwork-relatedmaterialsandresources.EAtremendousamountofenergyisrequiredtoproducetransportationequipmentsuchasautomobiles,buses,trainsandjetaircraft.Iftelecommutingispromoted,therewillbelessuseofthisequipmentandlessenergywillberequiredforproduction,maintenanceandrepairofthisequipment.Fuelresourcesandgasesneededtooperatethisequipmentwillbereduced,aswellthebuildingandrepairofhighwaysandmaintenancerequiresalargeconsumptionofenergy,notonlyintheoperationofthehighwayconstructionandrepairequipment,butalsointhemanufactureandtransportationoftherequiredmaterialsAnincreaseinthepercentageofpeopletelecommutingtoworkwilldecreasetheneedforexpandedhighwaysandassociatedroadmaintenance.ThefirsttwoareasrelatedtogettingtoFSocially,theSUSTELresearchfoundthatmostsurveyFSocially,theSUSTELresearchfoundthatmostsurveyrespondentsfeltthatteleworkinggavethemabetterqualityoflifeandwork-lifebalance.Manyalsoreportedhealthbenefits.Asignificantnumberalsostatedthattheywereusinglocalservicesmoreandbecomingmoreinvolvedintheirlocalcommunities.ThelossofteamworkandteamspiritwithinteleworkingpopulationswastackledthroughideassuchasOracle's‘Functional’offices.Designedtoincreasecommunicationandinteractionwhenpeopleareattheoffice,theyarebright,andfocusedaroundacentralcafetostimulateideasandface-to-facecontact.GThefindingthatmanyteleworkersreportbothlongerworkinghoursandbetterqualityoflifeisparadoxical.Moretimeworkingisusuallyassociatedwithincreasedstress,domestictensionandotherfactorsthatreducequalityoflife.Onepossibleexplanationisthat,formanyindividuals,theirincreasedworkinghourswillbelessthanthetimetheyhavesavedincommuting.Hence,theystillhavemoretimeavailableforfamilyandotheractivities.Forsome,thestressassociatedwithcommuting(especiallyforlongdistances)maybelessthanthatarisingfromadditionalworkingtime.Perhapsmostsignificantly,teleworkingcanineffectcreatetimethroughopportunitiesformulti-taskingorgreatercontrolofactivities.Asonesurveyrespondentnoted."Althoughtheamountoftimehasnotchangedithasmadetheweekendsfreer,asdomesticactivitiescanbefittedinduringlunchtimesorearlymorning."HWhenyouworkinanofficeoracubicleandsomethinggoeswrongwithanyhardwareorsoftwareyouhavetheoptionofcallingintheITman.Infact,alloftheequipmentthatyouuseattheofficeissupportedbytechnicalstaff.Thatmeansregularupdatesandmaintenanceforvariousandsundryofficetoolslikeland-linephones,computers,internetconnections,laptops,cellphones,printers,andotherofficeequipmentisalluptoyouWhenyouworkfromhome,you'llsurelyencountertechnicalproblemsandwhenyoudo,wheredoyougetthesupportandhelpyouneed?Ifyourcomputerharddrivecrashedtoday,wouldyouhavethefundstoreplaceit?Completethesummaryusingthelistofwords,A-IWritethecorrectletter.A-Iinboxes28-35onyouranswerTeleworkinghasbeensaidtohavemanybenefitsforbothsocietyandcompanies.Surveyidentifiedthattelecommutersspendmoretimeon28 thanthosetraditionalworkersonchangesinnon-commutingtravelonweekends.Italsoisbeneficialtoenvironmentasitreducesthe29 intheatmospherefromdecreasedstreetrepairs,cityheating,oreven30 asstaffinofficecouldsenddocuments31 Apartfromthat,othermaterialssuchasVehicle-related,Highway-relatedand32 materialswillalsobesaved.Traditionally,largeamountofenergyisneededtomake33e.g.Publictransportationandprivatecars.Withtheariseoftelecommuting,resourcesand34 willbesaved.Andconservationgoestotheenergyandmaterialsconsumedinall35 ABinternetCpaperEDconstructionandFIelectronicallyGHFIelectronicallyGHfuelsandLJKNCompleteeachsentencewithcorrectending,A-F,below.Writethecorrectletter.A-F,inbox36-39onyouranswersheet.36Moreworkingtimeisoftenconnectedwith:Oracle'sFunctionalideaaimstoWhenyouworkatofficeequipmentssuchascomputersandprintersaremaintainedby:39Whenworkfromhomeusinghardwareandsoftware:AstressandBconsumptionofCtheproblemoflesscommunicationwithcolleagues.Dmanyproblemswhenequipmentdoesn'twork.EtransportequipmentsuchasFtechnicalQuestionsAnswerthequestion40andchoosecorrectletterA.B,CorD.Impliedinthepassage,whatistheauthor'sattitudetowardTelework?AsurprisedbyitfastgrowthBunconcernedaboutthefutureCbelieveitisgenerallypositiveandencouragingDworriedintheeconomicalproblemsarise主題遠(yuǎn)程工作答案FACIMKHDACFDC主題遠(yuǎn)程工作答案FACIMKHDACFDCTwinStudy:TwoTwinStudy:TwoofaAThescientificstudyoftwinsgoesbacktothelate19thcentury,whenFrancisGalton,anearlygeneticist,realizedthattheycameintwovarieties:identicaltwinsbornfromoneeggandnon-identicaltwinsthathadcomefromtwo.Thatinsightturnedouttobekey,althoughitwasnotuntil1924thatitwasusedtoformulatewhatisknownasthetwinruleofpathology,andtwinstudiesreallygotgoing.BThetwinruleofpathologystatesthatanyheritablediseasewillbemoreconcordant(thatis,morelikelytobejointlypresentorabsent)inidenticaltwinsthaninnon-identicalwi—urn,willbemoreconcordantinnon-identicaltwinsthaninnon-siblings.Earlywork,forexample,showedthatthestatisticalcorrelationofskin-molecountsbetweenidenticaltwinswas0.4,whilenon-identicaltwinshadacorrelationofonly0.2.(Ascoreof1.0impliesperfectcorrelation,whileascoreofzeroimpliesnocorrelation.)Thisresultsuggeststhatmolesareheritable,butitalsoimpliesthatthereisanenvironmentalcomponenttothedevelopmentofmoles,otherwisethecorrelationinidenticaltwinswouldbecloseto1.0.CTwinresearchhasshownthatwhetherornotsomeonetakesupsmokingisdeterminedmainlybyenvironmentalfactors,butoncehedoesso,howmuchliesmokesislargelydowntohisgenesAndwhileaperson'sreligionisclearlyaculturalattribute,thereisastronggeneticcomponenttoreligiousfundamentalism.Twinstudiesarcalsounravelingtheheritabilityofvariousaspectsofhumanpersonality.Traitsfromneuroticismandanxietytothrill-andnovelty-seekingallhavelargegeneticcomponents.Parentingmatters,butitdoesnotdeterminepersonalityinthewaythatsomehadthought.DMoreimportantly,perhaps,twinstudiesarchelpingtheunderstandingofdiseasessuchascancer,asthma,osteoporosis,arthritisandimmunedisorders.Andtwinscanbeused,withinethicallimits,formedicalexperiments.AstudythatadministeredvitaminCtoonetwinandaplacebototheotherfoundthatithadnoeffectonthecommoncold.Thelessonfromalltoday'stwinstudiesisthatmosthumantraitsareatleastpartiallyinfluencedbygenes.However,forthemostpart,theage-olddichotomybetweennatureandnurtureisnotveryuseful.Manygeneticprogramsareopentoinputfromtheenvironment,andgenesarcfrequentlyswitchedonoroffbyenvironmentalsignals.Itisalsopossiblethatgenesthemselvesinfluencetheirenvironment.Somehumanshaveaninnatepreferenceforparticipationinsports.Othersaredrawntonovelty.Mightpeoplealsobetheenvironmenttheyactinasmuchastheenvironmentshapestheactionsofthegenes.EInthepast,suchresearchhasbeencontroversial.JosefMengele,aNazidoctorworkingattheAuschwitzexterminationcampduringtheSecondWorldWar,wasfascinatedbytwins.Hesoughtthemoutamongarrivalsatthecampandpreservedthemfromthegas-chambersforaseriesbrutalexperiments.Afterthewar,CyrilBurt,aBritishpsychologistwhoworkedontheheredityintelligence,taintedtwinintelligence,taintedtwinresearchwithresultsthatappear,inretrospect,tohavebeenrathergood.Someofhisdataonidenticaltwinswhohadbeenrearedapartwereprobablyfaked.Inanycase,theprevailingideologyinthesocialsciencesafterthewarwasMarxist,anddislikedwerethusviewedwithsuspicion.FTheideologicalpendulumhasswungback;however,asthehumangenomeprojectanditsaftermathhaveturnedgenesfromabstractconceptstorealpiecesofDNA.Theroleofgenesinsensitiveareassuchasintelligenceisacknowledgedbyallbutafewdie-hards.Theinterestingquestionsnowconcernhownatureandnurtureinteracttoproduceparticularbitsofbiology,ratherthanwhichofthetwoismoreimportantTwinstudies,whichareagoodwaytoaskthesequestions,arebackinfashion,andmanytwinsareenthusiasticparticipantsinthisresearch.GResearchattheTwinsburgfestivalbeganinasmallway,withasinglestandin1979.Gradually,newsspread,andmorescientistsbeganturningup.Thisyear,halfadozengroupsofresearcherswerelodgedinaspeciallypitchedresearchtent.Inonecornerofthistent.PaulBreslin,whoworksattheMonellInstituteinPhiladelphia,watchedoverseveraltableswheretwinssatsippingclearliquidsfromcupsandmakingnotes.Itwastheteam'sthirdyearatTwinsburg.DrBreslinandhisandtasteandthose(warmth,cold,pain,tingle,itchandsoon)thatresultfromstimulationoftheskin.Perceptionisanexampleofsomethingthatisprobablyinfluencedbybothgenesandexperience.Evenbeforebirth,peopleareexposedtoflavourssuchaschocolate,garlic,mintandvanillathatpassintactintothebloodstream,andthustothefetus.Thoughitisnotyetclearwhethersuchpre-natalexposureshapestaste-perceptionthereisevidencethatitshapespreferencesforfoodsencounteredlaterinlife.HHowever,thereareclearlygeneticinfluencesatwork,asel—forexampleintheabilitytotastequinine.Somepeopleexperiencethisasintenselybitter,evenwhenitispresentatverylowlevels.Others,whosegeneticendowmentisdifferent,arelessbotheredbyit.Twinstudiesmakethisextremelyclear.Withinapairofidenticaltwins,citherboth,orneither,willfindquininehardtoswallow.Non-identicaltwinswillagreelessfrequently.IOntheothersideofthetentDennisDrayna,fromtheNationalInstituteonDeafnessandOtherCommunicationDisorders,inMaryland,wasstudyinghearing.Hewantstoknowwhathappenstosoundsaftertheyreachthecar.Itisnotclear,hesays,whethersoundisprocessedintosensationthattheperceptionofmusicalpitchishighlyheritable.AtTwinsburg,heisplayingdifferentwords,orpartsofwords,intotheleftandrightearsofhistwinnedvolunteers.Thecompositeofthetwosoundsthatanindividualreportshearingdependsonhowheprocessesthisdiverseinformationandthat,DrDraynabelieves,maywellbeinfluencedbygenetics.JElsewhereinthemarquee,PeterMiraldi,ofKentStateUniversityinOhio,wastryingtofindwhethergenesaffectanindividual'swhethergenesaffectanindividual'smotivationtocommunicatewithothers.Anumberofstudieshaveshownthatpersonalityandsociabilityarcheritable,sohethinksthisisfertileground.AndnexttoMr.MiraldiwasateamofdermatologistsfromCaseWesternReserveUniversityinCleveland.Theyarelookingatthedevelopmentofskindiseasesandmale-patternbaldness.Thegoalofthelatterpieceofresearchistofindthegenesresponsibleformakingmen'shairfallout.Thebusiestpartofthetent,however,wasthequeueforforensic-scienceresearchintofingerprintsTheoriginsofthisstudyareshroudedinmysteryFormanymonths,thefestival'sorganizershaverotherthings,thesafetyoftheesidet—isbehindit.WhenTheEconomistcontactedtheSecretAssociationforIdentification(LAI),andisalsoadetectiveinthescientificinvestigationssectionoftheMarinCountySheriffsOfficeinCalifornia.TheLAI,basedinMinnesota,isanorganizationofforensicscientistsfromaroundtheworld.Amongotherthings,itpublishestheJournalofForensicThereadingPassagehasparagraphsA-WhichparagraphcontainsthefollowingWritethecorrectletterA-K,inboxes14-18onyouranswerNBYoumayuseanylettermorethanMentionedresearchconductedinMedicalcontributiontotheresearchesforResearchsituationunderlifethreateningDataofsimilaritiesofidenticalReasonsthatmakeonestudyCompletethefollowingsummaryoftheparagraphsofReadingPassage,usingNoMoreThanTwoWordsfromtheReadingPassageforeachanswer.Writeyouranswersinboxes19-20onyouranswersheet.Thefirstonethatconductedresearchontwinsiscalled19 .Heseparatedtwinsintotwocategories:nonidenticalandidenticaltwins.Thetwinresearchwasusedinmedicalapplicationasearlyastheyearof ChoosethecorrectlettersinfollowingWriteyouranswersinboxes21-23onyouranswerPleasechooseTHREEresearchfieldsthathadbeencarriedoutinOhio,MarylandandTwinsburgh?ASenseBCBeallergictoVitaminDMoleEDMoleEFBoldnessofChoosethecorrectlettersinfollowingWriteyouranswersinboxes24-26onyouranswerPleasechooseTHREEresultsthathadbeenverifiedinthispassage.ANonidenticaltwinscomefromdifferenteggs.BGeneticrelationbetweenidenticaltwinsiscloserthannon-identicalones.CVitaminChasevidenteffectonacold.DGeneticinfluencetosmokingissuperiortoEIfapregnantwomancatstoomuchsweetwouldleadtoskindisease.FHairlosshasbeenfoundtobeconnectedwithskinproblem.主題雙胞胎研究答案JDEBEFrancisAEFABD主題雙胞胎研究答案JDEBEFrancisAEFABDMakingAtfirst,nobodyboughtChesterCarlson'sstrangeidea.Buttrillionsofdocumentslater,hisinventionisthebiggestthinginprintingsinceCutenburgCopyingMakingAtfirst,nobodyboughtChesterCarlson'sstrangeidea.Buttrillionsofdocumentslater,hisinventionisthebiggestthinginprintingsinceCutenburgCopyingistheengineofcivilization:cultureisbehaviorduplicated.Theoldestcopierinventedbypeopleislanguage,bywhichanideaofyoursbecomesanideaofmine.Thesecondgreatcopyingmachinewaswriting.WhentheSumerianstransposedspokenwordsintostylusmarksonclaytabletsmorethan5,000yearsago,theyhugelyextendedthehumannetworkthatlanguagehadcreated.Writingfreedcopyingfromthechainoflivingcontact.Itmadeideaspermanent,portableandendlesslyreproducible.UntilJohannGutenberginventedtheprintingpressinthemid-1400s,producingabookinaneditionofmorethanonegenerallymeantwritingitoutagain.Printingwithmoveabletypewasnotcopying,however.Gutenbergcouldn'ttakeadocumentthatalreadyexisted,feeditintohisprintingpressandrunofffacsimiles.Thefirsttruemechanicalcopierwasmanufacturedin1780,whenJamesWatt,whoisbetterknownastheinventorofthemodernsteamengine,createdthecopyingpress.Fewpeopletodayknowwhatacopyingpresswas,butyoumayhaveseenoneinanantiquesstore,whereitwasperhapscalledabookpress.Ausertookadocumentfreshlywritteninspecialink,placedamoistenedsheetoftranslucentpaperagainsttheinkedsurfaceandsqueezedthetwosheetstogetherinthepress,causingsomeoftheinkfromtheoriginaltopenetratethesecondsheet,whichcouldthenbereadbyturningitoverandlookingthroughitsback.Thehighcostprohibitsthewidespreaduseofthiscopier.Amongthefirstmodemcopyingmachines,introducedin1950by3M,wastheThermo-Fax,anditmadeacopybyshininginfraredlightthroughanoriginaldocumentandasheetofpaperthathadbeencoatedwithheat-sensitivechemicals.CompetingmanufacturerssoonintroducedothercopyingtechnologiesandmarketedmachinescalledDupliton,Dial-A-MaticAutostat,Verifax,CopeaseandCopymation.Thesemachinesandtheirsuccessorswerewelcomedbysecretaries,whohadnoothermeansofreproducingdocumentsinhand,buteachhadseriousdrawbacks.Allrequiredexpensivechemicallytreatedpapers.Andallmadecopiesthatsmelledbad,werehardtoread,didn'tlastlongandtendedtocurlupintotubes.Themachinesweredisplaced,beginninginthelate1800s,byacombinationoftwo19thcenturyinventions:thetypewriterandcarbonpaper.Forthosereasons,copyingpresseswerestandardequipmentinofficesfornearlyacenturyandadifferentmachine,whichhadbeendevelopedbyanobscurephotographic-supplycompany.Thatcompanyhadbeenfoundedin1906astheHaloidCompanyandisknowntodayastheXeroxCorporation.In1959,itintroducedanofficecopiercalledtheHaloidXerox914,amachinethat,unlikeitsnumerouscompetitors,madesharp,permanentcopiesonordinarypaper-ahugebreakthrough.Theprocess,whichHaloidcalledxerography(basedonGreekwordsmeaning"dry"and"writing"),wassounusualandnonnutritivethatphysicistswhovisitedthedraftywarehouseswherethefirstmachineswerebuiltsometimesexpresseddoubtthatitwaseventheoreticallyRemarkably,xerographywasconceivedbyoneperson-ChesterCarlson,ashy,soft-patentattorney,whogrewpatentattorney,whogrewupinalmostunspeakablepovertyandworkedhiswaythroughcollegeandtheCaliforniaInstituteofTechnology.ChesterCarlsonwasborninSeattlein1906.Hisparents-OlofAdolphCarlsonandEllenJosephineHwki—hadgrownuponneighboringfarmsGroveCity,Minnesota,atinySwedishfarmingcommunityabout75mileswestofMinneapolis.Comparewithcompetitors,Carlsonwasnotanormalinventorin20-century.Hemadehisdiscoveryinsolitudein1937andofferedittomorethan20majorcorporations,amongthemIBM,GeneralElectric,EastmanKodakandRCA.Allofthemturnedhimdown,expressingwhathelatercalled"anenthusiasticlackofinterest"andtherebypassinguptheopportunitytomanufacturewhatFortunemagazinewoulddescribeas"themostsuccessfulproductevermarketedinAmerica."Carlson'sinventionwasindeedacommercialtriumph.Essentiallyovernight,peoplebeganmakingcopiesataratethatwasordersofmagnitudehigherthananyonehadbelievedpossible.Andtherateisstillgrowing.Infact,mostdocumentshandledbyatypicalAmericanofficeworkertodayareproducedxerographically,eitheroncopiersmanufacturedbyXeroxanditscompetitorsoronlaserprinters,whichemploythesameprocess(andwereinvented,inthe1970s,byaXeroxresearcher).Thisyear,theworldwillproducemorethanthre