西方社會(huì)學(xué)理論課件

2024-2-141AnIntroductiontoWesternSocialTheory1.Thesignificanceofstudyingwesternsocialtheory

1.1Thedevelopingtendencyofsocialscience1.2Thesociology’sresearchingtarget1.3Theindependenceofsociology

2024-2-1422.thecharacteristicsofsocialtheory2.1accumulation2.2developmentstage2.3diversification2024-2-143

3.Thefourstagesofsocialtheory

3.1Thefirststage:from1837tothebeginningof20century---thefoundationofsociology3.2Thesecondstage:from1920’sto1960’s---thegeneraltheoryappearance

2024-2-1443.3Thethirdstage:from1960’sto1980’s---theprosperityofsocialtheory3.4Theforthstage:from1980’stillnow---theintegrationofsocialtheory2024-2-1454.DivergentmethodologyofsocialtheoryMacrocosmvsmicrocosmPositivismvsanti-positivism2024-2-146Chapterone:

AugusteComte(1798—1857)2024-2-147ThepersonAugusteComtewasbornonJanuary19,1798,inthesouthernFrenchcityofMontpellierInAugust1814,ComteenteredthecompetitionfortheentranceexaminationsoftheprestigiousEcole

Polytechnique

whichwasaworldlyfamousscientificuniversity,2024-2-148Inthesummerof1817ComtewasintroducedtoHenriSaint-SimonwhowastohaveamajorandlastinginfluenceonComte'slifeandworks.In1824Comtefinallybrokewithhismaster.2024-2-149begantopublishhiscourseofphilosophyin1826.Becauseofhisunhappylife,Herealizedthatmereintellectualdevelopmentisinsufficientforlife,and,havingpresentedPositivismasthescientificdoctrineandmethod,heaimedatmakingitareligion,thereligionofhumanity.2024-2-1410Comte'schiefworksarehis"Coursdephilosophiepositive"[6vols.:Phiosophiemathématique(1830),astronomiqueetphysique(1835),chimiqueetbiologique(1838),partie

dogmatiquedelaphilosophie

sociale(1839),partie

historique(1840),complémentdelaphilosophie

socialeetconclusions(1842);2024-2-1411ASummaryofIdeasComte'saimwastocreateanaturalisticscienceofsociety,whichwouldbothexplainthepastdevelopmentofmankindandpredictitsfuturecourse.Thestudyofsocialdynamicsandsocialstatics--ofchangeandstability--arethetwinpillarsofhissystems.2024-2-1412Naturalscience,Comteargued,hadsucceededinestablishingthelawfulnessofnaturalphenomena.thenewsciencereliedon"reasoningandobservation,dulycombined"astheonlylegitimatemeansofattainingknowledge.2024-2-1413Everyscientifictheorymustbebasedonobservedfacts,butitisequallytruethat"factscannotbeobservedwithouttheguidanceofsometheory2024-2-1414ThenewsocialsciencesthatComtesoughttoestablishhefirstcalled"socialphysics;“Later,hechangeditinto“sociology”.

Itwastobepatternedafterthenaturalsciences,notonlyinitsempiricalmethodsandepistemologicalunderpinnings,butalsointhefunctionsitwouldserveformankind.2024-2-1415

Farfrombeingoftheoreticalinterestalone,thesocialsciences,likethenaturalsciences,mustultimatelybeofconcretebenefittomanandplayamajorpartintheameliorationofthehumancondition.2024-2-1416

"Foritisonlybyknowingthelawsofphenomena,andthusbeingabletoforeseethem,thatwecan...setthemtomodifyoneanotherforouradvantage....FromSciencecomesPrevision;fromPrevisioncomesAction."(Savoirpourprevoiretprevoirpourpouvoir.)2024-2-1417TheLawofHumanProgressthetheological---themetaphysical---thepositiveComtepointedoutthattheevolutionofthehumanmindpassedthroughthreesuccessivestages:thetheological---themetaphysical---thepositive2024-2-1418Atthepositivestage,whichrejectsthevalidityofmetaphysicalspeculation,theexistenceoffinalcauses,andtheknowablenessoftheabsolute,andconfinesitselftothestudyofexperimentalfactsandtheirrelations,representstheperfectionofhumanknowledge.2024-2-1419ThefundamentalprincipleofPositivismisthatsenseexperienceistheonlyobjectofhumanknwledge.sciencecannotbe,asAristotle

conceivedit,theknowledgeofthingsthroughtheirultimatecauses,sincematerialandformalcausesareunknowable,finalcausesillusions,whilemetaphysics,underanyform,isillegitimate.PositivismisthusacontinuationofcrudeEmpiricismand

Associationism.onism,

2024-2-1420ChapterTwo:HerbertSpencer(1820---1903)PersonSpencerwasbornonApril27,1820,inDerby,

England.HerbertSpencerdidnotattendaregularschool.Hisfathereducatedhimathome.Attheageof13,Spencerreceivedhisfurthereducationfromhisuncle.SpencerleanedheavilyonthescientificsidebuthisLatinandGreekwereweakandhisknowledgeofhistorywassuperficial.2024-2-1421In1837,SpencerjoinedthestaffoftheLondonandBirminghamRailwayasanengineer.In1848,hefoundastablepositionandassuredincomeasasubeditorwiththeLondonEconomist.WhileworkingontheEconomist,Spencerfinishedhisfirstbook,SocialStatics,whichwaspublishedin1851.2024-2-1422Whenhisunclediedin1853,heleftSpencerasizablesumofmoney,SpencerfeltencouragedtogiveuphisjobwiththeEconomist.Fromthenonhelivedthelifeofaprivatescholarwithoutregularemploymentorinstitutionalattachment.2024-2-1423Spencerwrotemanybooksinhislonglife:FirstPrinciples(ofhisoverallSyntheticPhilosophy)waspublishedin1862.TheseveralvolumesofPrinciplesofBiologywereissuedbetween1864and1867.TheStudyofSociologyappearedin1873,andthemanyvolumesofPrinciplesofEthicsandPrinciplesofSociologywerepublishedbetweentheseventiesandthenineties.TheManVersustheStateappearedin1884.2024-2-1424ASummaryofIdeas:AlthoughSpencerseemstohaveprotestedtoomuchindisclaiminganyprofoundinfluenceofComte'sthoughtonhisown,itistruethathisgeneralorientationdifferssignificantlyfromComte's.Spencerdescribedtheirdifferentapproachesinthisway:2024-2-1425WhatisComte'sprofessedaim?Togiveacoherentaccountoftheprogressofhumanconceptions.Whatismyaim?Togiveacoherentaccountoftheprogressoftheexternalworld.Comteproposestodescribethenecessary,andtheactual,filiationofideas.Iproposetodescribethenecessary,andtheactual,filiationofthings.Comteprofessestointerpretthegenesisofourknowledgeofnature.Myaimistointerpret...thegenesisofthephenomena

whichconstitutenature…2024-2-1426Spencer'sfirstandforemostconcernwaswithevolutionarychangesinsocialstructuresandsocialinstitutionsratherthanwiththementalstates.Evolution,thatis,"achangefromastateofrelativelyindefinite,incoherent,homogeneitytoastateofrelativelydefinite,coherent,heterogeneity,"wastoSpencerthatuniversalprocesswhichhappenedinbothnatureandsocialsociety.2024-2-1427Growth,Structure,andDifferentationBothorganicandsocialaggregatesarecharacterizedbySpenceraccordingtoprogressiveincreasesinsize."Societies,likelivingbodies,beginasgerms--originatefrommasseswhichareextremelyminuteincomparisonwiththemassessomeofthemeventuallyreach."2024-2-1428Societalgrowthmaycomeaboutthroughtwoprocesses,"whichgoonsometimesseparately,andsometimestogether."Itresultseitherfromanincreaseinpopulation,"bysimplemultiplicationofunits,"orfromthejoiningofpreviouslyunrelatedunitsby"unionofgroups,andagainbyunionofgroupsofgroups."2024-2-1429Increasesinthesizeofunitsisinvariablyaccompaniedbyanincreaseinthecomplexityoftheirstructure.Theprocessofgrowth,bydefinition,istoSpenceraprocessofintegration.Andintegrationinitsturnmustbeaccompaniedbyaprogressivedifferentiationofstructuresandfunctionsiftheorganismorthesocietalunitistoremainviable--thatis,ifitistosurviveinthestruggleforexistence.2024-2-1430Socialaggregates,likeorganicones,growfromrelativelyundifferentiatedstatesinwhichthepartsresembleoneanotherintodifferentiatedstatesinwhichthesepartshavebecomedissimilar.Moreover,oncepartshavebecomeunlike,theyaremutuallydependentoneachother;thus,withgrowingdifferentiationcomesgrowinginterdependenceandhenceintegration.2024-2-1431

Insimplesocieties,wherethepartsarebasicallyalike,theycanbeeasilysubstitutedforoneanother.Butincomplexsocieties,"theactionsofonepartwhichfailsinitsfunctioncannotbeassumedbyotherparts."Complexsocietiesarethereforemorevulnerableandmorefragileinstructurethantheirearlierandruderpredecessors.2024-2-1432Theincreasingmutualdependenceofunlikepartsincomplexsocieties,andthevulnerabilityitbringsinitswakenecessitatetheemergenceofa"regulatingsystem"thatcontrolstheactionsofthepartsandinsurestheircoordination.2024-2-1433

Earlyintheprocessofsocialevolution,regulatingcentersaremainlyrequiredfordealingwiththeoutsideenvironment,butlatersuchregulatingcentersassumetheburdenofinternalregulationandsocialcontrolwhencomplexityoffunctionsnolongerallowstheentirelyspontaneousadjustmentofpartstooneanother.2024-2-1434Evolution-UnilinearorMultilinearInmanypassages,especiallyinhisearlierwritings,Spencerexpresseswhatseemstobeabeliefintheunilinearevolutionofmankind,YetthematureSpencer,,recognizedthat,thoughtheevolutionofmankindasawholewascertain,particularsocietiesmayretrogressaswellasprogress.2024-2-1435"Whilethecurrentdegradationtheoryisuntenable,thetheoryofprogression,initsordinaryform,seemstomeuntenablealso....Itispossibleand,Ibelieve,probable,thatretrogressionhasbeenasfrequentasprogression."

Spencerbyandlargebelievedthatsocietiesdonotdevelopirreversiblythroughpredeterminedstages.Rather,itwashisgeneralviewthattheydevelopedinresponsetotheirsocialandnaturalenvironment.2024-2-1436ChapterThree:

EmileDurkheim(1858—1917)ThePerson:EmileDurkheimwasbornatEpinalintheeasternFrenchonApril15,1858.Sonofarabbianddescendingfromalonglineofrabbis,hedecidedquiteearlythathewouldfollowthefamilytraditionandbecomearabbihimself.Butlaterheturnedawayfromallreligiousinvolvement,thoughnotfrominterestinreligiousphenomena,andbecameanagnostic(onewhobelievesthattherecanbenoproofoftheexistenceofGodbutdoesnotdenythepossibilitythatGodexists).2024-2-1437In1879,DurkheimwasenteredtheEcole

Normale.Atthetimeofhisgraduation,Durkheimdecidednottobethetraditionalphilosopherbuttobedevotehimselftoadisciplinethatwouldcontributetotheclarificationofthegreatmoralquestionsthatagitatedtheage,aswellastopracticalguidanceoftheaffairsofcontemporarysociety.Moreconcretely,DurkheimwishedtomakeacontributiontothemoralandpoliticalconsolidationoftheThirdRepublic.Whatheconsideredimperativewastoconstructascientificsociologicalsystem.2024-2-1438From1882to1887hetaughtphilosophyinanumberofprovincialLyceesintheneighborhoodofParis.Thenin1887,hewasappointedtothestaffoftheUniversityofBordeaux.AtBordeaux,DurkheimwasattachedtothedepartmentofphilosophywhereheofferedthefirstsociologycourseinaFrenchuniversity.2024-2-1439In1893,hefinishedhisFrenchdoctoralthesis,TheDivisionofLabor,OnlytwoyearslaterTheRulesofSociologicalMethodappeared,andwithinanothertwoyearsLeSuicidewaspublished.Withthesethreemajorworks,Durkheimmovedintotheforefrontoftheacademicworld.2024-2-1440DurkheimfoundedascholarlyjournalL'Annee

Sociologiquein1898,whichsoonbecamethecenterforanextraordinarilygiftedgroupofyoungscholars,allunited,inacommondevotiontotheDurkheimianapproachtosociology.L’Annee

wassuccessfultoweldthemtogetherintoacohesive"school“.2024-2-1441Inhislaterlife,Durkheimturnedtothedetailedstudyofprimitivereligion.Hehadpublishedanumberofpreliminarypapersinthearea,andthiscourseofstudiesfinallyledtothepublicationin1912ofDurkheim'slastmajorwork,TheElementaryFormsofReligiousLife.2024-2-1442ASummaryofIdeasSocialFactThemainthrustofDurkheim'soveralldoctrineishisinsistencethatthestudyofsocietymusteschewreductionismandconsidersocialphenomenasui

generis.2024-2-1443Durkheimpresentedadefinitivecritiqueofreductionistexplanationsofsocialbehavior.Socialphenomenaare"socialfacts"andthesearethesubjectmatterofsociology.2024-2-1444Socialfactshavedistinctivesocialcharacteristicsanddeterminantswhicharenotamenabletoexplanationsonthebiologicalorpsychologicallevel.Theyareexternaltoanyparticularindividualconsideredasabiologicalentity.Theyendureovertimewhileparticularindividualsdieandarereplacedbyothers.2024-2-1445Moreover,theyarenotonlyexternaltotheindividual,buttheyare"endowedwithcoercivepower,by...whichtheyimposethemselvesuponhim,independentofhisindividualwill."Constraints,whetherintheformoflawsorcustoms,comeintoplaywheneversocialdemandsarebeingviolated.2024-2-1446Durkheimstressedthatsocialfacts,andmoreparticularlymoralrules,becomeeffectiveguidesandcontrolsofconductonlytotheextentthattheybecomeinternalizedintheconsciousnessofindividuals,2024-2-1447Tohim,constraintisnolongerasimpleimpositionofoutsidecontrolsonindividualwill,butratheramoralobligationtoobeyarule.Inthissense,societyis"somethingbeyondusandsomethinginourselves."2024-2-1448FunctionalExplanationItisDurkheimwhoclearlyestablishedthelogicofthefunctionalapproachtothestudyofsocialphenomenaandusedittohisworks.Inparticular,Durkheimsetdownacleardistinctionbetweenhistoricalandfunctionaltypesofinquiryandbetweenfunctionalconsequencesandindividualmotivations.

2024-2-1449“When....theexplanationofasocialphenomenonisundertaken,wemustseekseparatelytheefficientcausewhichproducesitandthefunctionitfulfills.Wemustdeterminewhetherthereisacorrespondencebetweenthefactunderconsiderationandthegeneralneedsofthesocialorganism,andinwhatthiscorrespondenceconsists,withoutoccupyingourselveswithwhetherithasbeenintentionalornot.”2024-2-1450Durkheimseparatedfunctionalanalysisfromtwootheranalyticalprocedures,thequestforhistoricaloriginsandcausesandtheprobingofindividualpurposesandmotives.Thesecondseemedtohimofonlyperipheralimportanceforsociologicalinquirysincemenoftenengageinactionswhentheyareunabletoanticipatetheconsequences.2024-2-1451Thequestfororiginsandhistoricalcauses,however,wastoDurkheimasanessentialandlegitimatepartofthesociologicalenterpriseaswastheanalysisoffunctions.Infact,hewasconvincedthatthefullexplanationofsociologicalphenomenawouldnecessarilyutilizebothhistoricalandfunctionalanalysis.2024-2-1452Foranexample,inhisdiscussionofdevianceandcriminality,Durkheimdepartedfundamentallyfromtheconventionalpath.Whilemostcriminologiststreatedcrimeasapathologicalphenomenonandsoughtpsychologicalcausesinthemindofthecriminal,Durkheimsawcrimeasnormalintermsofitsoccurrence,andevenashavingpositivesocialfunctionsintermsofitsconsequences.2024-2-1453Crimewasnormalinthatnosocietycouldenforcetotalconformitytoitsinjunctions,andifsocietycould,itwouldbesorepressiveastoleavenoleewayforthesocialcontributionsofindividuals.Deviancefromthenormsofsocietyisnecessaryifsocietyistoremainflexibleandopentochangeandnewadaptations.2024-2-1454"Wherecrimeexists,collectivesentimentsaresufficientlyflexibletotakeonanewform,andcrimesometimeshelpstodeterminetheformtheywilltake.Howmanytimes,indeed,itisonlyananticipationoffuturemorality--asteptowardwhatwillbe."2024-2-1455Durkheimalwaysshowshimselfamasterfulfunctionalanalyst.HemustberecognizedasthedirectancestorofthattypeoffunctionalanalysiswhichcametodominateBritishanthropologyundertheimpactofRadcliffe-BrownandMalinowskiandwhichled.somewhatlater,toAmericanfunctionalisminsociologyunderTalcottParsonsandRobertK.Merton.2024-2-1456

FromMechanicalSolidaritytoOrganicSolidarityDuetotheDivisionofLaborDurkheimsaidthatincontrasttoearliertypesofsocialorganizationbasedonmechanicalsolidaritythatdemandedahighdegreeofregimentation,moderntypesoforganizationrestonorganicsolidarityobtainedthroughthefunctionalinterdependenceofautonomousindividuals..2024-2-1457Inmodernsocieties,socialsolidarityisdependentupon,ratherthanrepressiveof,individualautonomyofconduct.TherearesomedifferencesbetweentheMechanicalSolidaritytoOrganicSolidarity.

2024-2-14581.Thefirstbindstheindividualdirectlytosocietywithoutanyintermediary.Inthesecond,hedependsuponsociety,becausehedependsuponthepartsofwhichitiscomposed.2024-2-14592.Societyisnotseeninthesameaspectinthetwocases.Inthefirst,whatwecallsocietyisamoreorlessorganizedtotalityofbeliefsandsentimentscommontoallthemembersofthegroup:thisisthecollectivetype.Ontheotherhand,thesocietyinwhichwearesolidaryinthesecondinstanceisasystemofdifferent,specialfunctionswhichdefiniterelationsunite.2024-2-1460Individual,SocietyandAnomieToDurkheim,menwerecreatureswhosedesireswereunlimited.Human’sinsatiabledesirescanonlybeheldincheckbyexternalcontrols.Societyimposeslimitsonhumandesiresandconstitutes"aregulativeforcewhichmustplaythesameroleformoralneedswhichtheorganismplaysforphysicalneeds."2024-2-1461Inwell-regulatedsocieties,socialcontrolssetlimitsonindividualpropensitiessothat"eachinhisspherevaguelyrealizestheextremelimitssettohisambitionsandaspirestonothingbeyond”.2024-2-1462Whensocialregulationsbreakdown,thecontrollinginfluenceofsocietyonindividualpropensitiesisnolongereffectiveandindividualsarelefttotheirowndevices.SuchastateofaffairsDurkheimcallsanomie,whichreferstoaconditionofrelativenormlessnessinawholesocietyorinsomeofitscomponentgroups.2024-2-1463Anomiedoesnotrefertoastateofmind,buttoapropertyofthesocialstructure.Itcharacterizesaconditioninwhichindividualdesiresarenolongerregulatedbycommonnormsandwhere,asaconsequence,individualsareleftwithoutmoralguidanceinthepursuitoftheirgoals.2024-2-1464Althoughcompleteanomie,ortotalnormlessness,isempiricallyimpossible,societiesmaybecharacterizedbygreaterorlesserdegreesofnormativeregulations.Moreover,withinanyparticularsociety,groupsmaydifferinthedegreeofanomiethatbesetsthem.2024-2-1465Socialchangemaycreateanomieeitherinthewholesocietyorinsomepartsofit.Businesscrises,foranexample,mayhaveafargreaterimpactonthoseonthesocialpyramidthanontheunderlyingpopulation.Whendepressionleadstoasuddendownwardmobility,themenaffectedexperienceade-regulationintheirlives--alossofmoralcertaintyandcustomaryexpectationswhichthesemenonceheld.2024-2-1466Similarly,therapidonsetofprosperitymayleadsomepeopletoaquickupwardmobilityandhencedeprivethemofthesocialsupportneededintheirnewstylesoflife.Anyrapidmovementinthesocialstructurethatupsetspreviousnetworksinwhichlifestylesareembeddedcarrieswithitachanceofanomie.2024-2-1467AnintroductiontoleSuicideHisworkonsuicideisthediscussionandanalysisofanomieforms.Oncehediscoveredthatcertaintypesofsuicidecouldbeaccountedforbyanomie,hecouldthenuseanomicsuicideasanindexfortheotherwiseunmeasurable

degreeofsocialintegration.

2024-2-1468Hereasonedasfollows:Therearenosocietiesinwhichsuicidedoesnotoccur,andmanysocietiesshowroughlythesameratesofsuicideoverlongperiodsoftime.Thisindicatesthatsuicidesmaybeconsidereda"normal,"thatis,aregular,occurrence.2024-2-1469However,suddenspurtsinthesuicideratesofcertaingroupsortotalsocietiesare"abnormal"andpointtosomeperturbationsnotpreviouslypresent.2024-2-1470Hence."abnormally"highratesinspecificgroupsorsocialcategories,orintotalsocieties,canbetakenasanindexofdisintegratingforcesatworkinasocialstructure.2024-2-1471Durkheimdistinguishedbetweentypesofsuicideaccordingtotherelationoftheactortohissociety.Whenmenbecome"detachedfromsociety,"whentheyarethrownupontheirowndevicesandloosenthebondsthatpreviouslyhadtiedthemtotheirfellows,theyarepronetoegoisticsuicide,orindividualisticsuicide.2024-2-1472Whenthenormativeregulationssurroundingindividualconductsarerelaxedandhencefailtocurbandguidehumanpropensities,menaresusceptibletosuccumbing

toanomicsuicide.

2024-2-1473Toputthematterdifferently,whentherestraintsofstructuralintegration,asexemplifiedintheoperationoforganicsolidarity,failtooperate,menbecomepronetoegoisticsuicide;whenthecollectiveconscienceweakens,menfallvictimtoanomicsuicide2024-2-1474Inadditiontoegoisticandanomictypesofsuicide,Durkheimreferstoaltruisticandfatalisticsuicide.Thelatteristouchedupononlybrieflyinhiswork2024-2-1475Inthecaseofexcessiveregulation,thedemandsofsocietyaresogreatthatsuicidevariesdirectlyratherthaninverselywiththedegreeofintegration.Forexample,intheinstanceoftheHindunormativerequirementthatwidowscommitritualsuicideuponthefuneralpyreoftheirhusbands.2024-2-1476Arguingfromstatisticaldata,Durkheimshowsthatinmodernsocietiesthehighratesofsuicideamongthemilitarycannotbeexplainedbythedeprivationsofmilitarylifesufferedbythelowerranks,sincethesuicideratehappenstobehigherforofficersthanforenlistedmen.2024-2-1477Rather,thehighrateforofficerscanbeaccountedforbyamilitarycodeofhonorthatenjoinsapassivehabitofobedienceleadingofficerstoundervaluetheirownlives.2024-2-1478Durkheim'streatmentofaltruisticsuicideindicatesthathealsorealizedthattotalcontrolofcomponentsocialactorsbysocietywouldbeasdetrimentalasanomieandde-regulation.Throughouthislifeheattemptedtoestablishabalancebetweensocietalandindividualclaims.2024-2-1479TheSociologyofReligionDurkheim'searlierconcernwithsocialregulationwasinthemainfocusedonthemoreexternalforcesofcontrol,moreparticularlylegalregulationsthatcanbestudied.2024-2-1480Laterhewasledtoconsiderforcesofcontrolthatwereinternalizedinindividualconsciousness.Beingconvincedthat"societyhastobepresentwithintheindividual,"2024-2-1481Basictohistheoryisthestressonreligiousphenomenaascommunalratherthanindividual."Areligionisaunifiedsystemofbeliefsandpracticesrelativetosacredthings,thatistosay,thingssetapartandforbidden--beliefsandpracticeswhichuniteinonesinglemoralcommunitycalledaChurch,allthosewhoadheretoit."2024-2-1482Durkheimarguedthatreligiousphenomenaemergeinanysocietywhenaseparationismadebetweenthesphereoftheprofane--therealmofeverydayutilitarianactivities.2024-2-1483Sacredactivitiesarevaluedbythecommunityofbelieversnotasmeanstoends,butbecausethereligiouscommunityhasbestowedtheirmeaningon.2024-2-1484Distinctionsbetweenthespheresofthesacredandtheprofanearealwaysmadebygroupswhobandtogetherinacultandwhoareunitedbytheircommonsymbolsandobjectsofworship.Religionis"aneminentlycollectivething."Itbindsmentogether.2024-2-1485Butifreligion,thegreatbindingforce,isonitsdeathbed,howthencanthemaladyofmodernsociety,itstendencytodisintegrate,beupheld?HereDurkheimaccomplishedoneofhismostdaringanalyticalleaps.Religion,heargued,isnotonlyasocialcreation,butitisinfactsocietydivinized.statedthat2024-2-1486Religioniseminentlysocial:itoccursinasocialcontext,and,moreimportantly,whenmencelebratesacredthings,theyunwittinglycelebratethepoweroftheirsociety.Thispowersotranscendstheirownexistencethattheyhavetogiveitsacredsignificanceinordertovisualizeit.2024-2-1487Ifreligioninitsessenceisatranscendentalrepresentationofthepowersofsociety,then,Durkheimargued,thedisappearanceoftraditionalreligionneednotheraldthedissolutionofsociety.2024-2-1488Allthatisrequiredisformodernmennowtorealizedirectlythatdependenceonsocietywhichbeforetheyhadrecognizedonlythroughthemediumofreligiousrepresentations.

"Wemustdiscovertherationalsubstitutesforthesereligiousnotionsthatforalongtimehaveservedasthevehicleforthemostessentialmoralideas."2024-2-1489ChapterFourMaxWeber(1864-1920)ThePerson：MaxWeberwasbornonApril21,1864，Germany.HewenttotheUniversityofHeidelbergateighteenandstudiedlaw.Inthefallof1884,hismilitaryserviceover,Weberreturnedtohisparents'hometostudyattheUniversityofBerlin.2024-2-1490Forthenexteightyearsofhislife,Weberstayedathisparents'house,firstasastudent,laterasajuniorbarristerinBerlincourts,andfinallyasalectureattheUniversityofBerlin.2024-2-1491ASummaryofIdeasIntroductionMaxWeberconceivedofsociologyasacomprehensivescienceofsocialactionwhich,Webersaid,wasthesubjectmatterofsociology.Inhisanalyticalfocusonindividualhumanactors,hedifferedfrommanyofhispredecessorswhosesociologywasconceivedinsocial-structuralterms.2024-2-1492Spencerconcentratedontheevolutionofthebodysocialasanalogoustoanorganism..Durkh