計(jì)算機(jī)專業(yè)英語第4版-Computer Applications

ComputerApplications6.1ElectronicCommerce6.2MobileCommerce6.3ArtificialIntelligence6.4NeuralNetworksandExpertSystem6.5OfficeAutomation6.6專業(yè)英語應(yīng)用模塊16.1ElectronicCommerceElectroniccommerce(E-commerce)isdoingbusinessthroughelectronicmedia.Itmeansusingsimple,fastandlow-costelectroniccommunicationstotransact,withoutface-to-facemeetingbetweenthetwopartiesofthetransaction.2Internetprovidescompanieswithmanymarketsinthecyber-worldandnumerouschancesforproductpromotion.Besides,relationshipswithbuyerscanalsobeenhanced.Bytheuseofmultimediacapabilities,corporateimage,productandservicebrandnamescanbeestablishedeffectivelythroughtheInternet.3ThemodelforE-commercemustincludecommunications,datamanagement,andsecurity.Ofcourse,theapplicationmustalsobepartofthemodel.SoamodelforE-commercecomprisedoffivemajorcomponents:auserinterface,anapplication,communications,datamanagement,andsecurity.OneofthekeycomponentsfordevelopinganE-commerceenvironmentwillbesoftwarethatcansupportlocalapplicationsandinteroperateinaheterogeneousnetworkingenvironment;thiswillrequiretheuseofopensystemsbasedonnationalandinternationalstandards.4AnElectronicPaymentSystem(EPS)isneededformakingpaymentstowardspurchasesofinformation,goodsandservicesprovidedthroughtheInternet.（1）SmartcardsItisasmallelectronicdeviceaboutthesizeofacreditcardthatcontainselectronicmemory,andanembeddedIntegratedCircuit(IC).（2）CreditcardsCreditcards(anddebitcardsthatsharetheirnetworks)arethepreferredmethodofpaymentamongonlineconsumers.5（3）ElectroniccashOneneedstobuyoccasionallysmallvalueitemslikesinglenewspaper.Foronlineprocurementofsuchitemscreditcardisnotpreferredduetohightransactioncostsinvolved.SystemssuchasE-cashallowthecustomertodepositcashintoabankaccountandreceiveanencodeddigitalstringforeachmonetaryunit,whichistransferredintouser’sharddisk.6InfluencethatE-commerceMayHave（1）Extensivecoverage（2）Completefunctions（3）Convenienceandflexibilityinuse（4）Lowcost7E-commercewillhavesubstantialinfluenceonsocialeconomy（1）E-commercewillchangethewaypeopleusedtotakeincommercialactivities（2）ThecoreofE-commerceispeople（3）E-commercechangesthewayenterprisesproducetheirproduction（4）E-commercedramaticallyraisesefficiencyoftrade（5）E-commercecallsforreformationofbankingservices8agency 代理機(jī)構(gòu)，中介competitive 競爭的connectivity 連接consumption 消費(fèi)deploy 展開，配置dramatically 突然，引人注意地enterprise 企業(yè)heterogeneous 異種的，不同的9hire 租用，租借invest 投資maturity

成熟，償還期，到期monetary 貨幣的negotiation 談判，磋商payment 付款，支付penetrate 穿透permeation 滲透10pursue 實(shí)行，實(shí)現(xiàn)tender 溫柔的，審慎的transact 辦理，處理ubiquitous 普遍存在的warehouse 倉庫zerostock 零庫存11[1]Withthewideuseofcomputer,thematurityandthewideadoptionofInternet,thepermeationofcreditcards,theestablishmentofsecuretransactionagreementandthesupportandpromotionbygovernments,thedevelopmentofE-commerceisbecomingprosperous,withpeoplestartingtouseelectronicmeansasthemediaofdoingbusiness.譯文：隨著計(jì)算機(jī)的廣泛應(yīng)用，互聯(lián)網(wǎng)的日趨成熟和廣泛使用，信用卡的普及，政府對安全交易協(xié)定的支持和促進(jìn)，電子商務(wù)正變得繁榮起來，人們開始利用電子媒介做生意。本句的主句是“thedevelopmentofE-commerceisbecomingprosperous”，主句之前的是伴隨狀語；“maturity”的意思是“成熟，完備，（票據(jù)）到期”，“permeation”原意是“滲入，透過”，這里指信用卡在社會中的普及。12[2]BusinessescanmaintaintheircompetitiveadvantagebyestablishingclosecontactwiththeircustomersandconsumersatanytimethroughInternetbyprovidingthelatestinformationonproductsandservicesroundtheclock.譯文：通過在互聯(lián)網(wǎng)上全天候地提供產(chǎn)品及服務(wù)的最新信息，商家可以與客戶和消費(fèi)者隨時(shí)建立緊密聯(lián)系來確保他們的競爭優(yōu)勢。本句的“byestablishing…”是狀語，“l(fā)atestinformation”的意思是“最新信息”，“roundtheclock”的意思是“24小時(shí)”。13[3]Newapplicationsthattakeadvantageofnetworksandimprovedcomputerperformancewillberequired.譯文：需要那些利用網(wǎng)絡(luò)優(yōu)勢，提升計(jì)算機(jī)性能的新的應(yīng)用。本句由“that”引導(dǎo)定語從句，修飾主語。14[4]Touseasmartcard,eithertopullinformationfromitoradddatatoit,youneedasmartcardreader,asmalldeviceintowhichyouinsertthesmartcard.譯文：使用智能卡，無論是從中提取信息還是向卡中加入數(shù)據(jù)，都需要一臺智能卡讀卡機(jī)——一臺將智能卡插入其中的小設(shè)備。本句的“Touseasmartcard”是目的狀語，“eithertopullinformationfromitoradddatatoit”是讓步狀語，“asmalldeviceintowhichyouinsertthesmartcard”是非限制性定語，修飾“smartcardreader”。15[5]

SystemssuchasE-cashallowthecustomertodepositcashintoabankaccountandreceiveanencodeddigitalstringforeachmonetaryunit,whichistransferredintouser’sharddisk.譯文：電子現(xiàn)金系統(tǒng)，允許顧客將現(xiàn)金存放在一個(gè)銀行賬戶中，則顧客將收到一個(gè)代表一個(gè)貨幣單位的編碼數(shù)字串，該數(shù)字串被傳送到用戶的硬盤中。本句的“suchasE-cash”作主語的同位語，“whichistransferredintouser’sharddisk”是非限制性定語從句。16BusinessNetworkingTechnologyElectroniccommerceisasystemthatincludesnotonlythosetransactionsthatcenteronbuyingandsellinggoodsandservicestodirectlygeneraterevenue,butalsothosetransactionsthatsupportrevenuegeneration,suchasgeneratingdemandforthosegoodsandservices,offeringsalessupportandcustomerservice,orfacilitatingcommunicationsbetweenbusinesspartners.17Electroniccommerceenablesnewformsofbusiness,aswellasnewwaysofdoingbusiness.Networkmakesitpossibletoofferallproductsandservicesforacustomerprocessonacoordinatedbasisandfromasinglesource.Businessnetworkingmakescollaborationbetweentwocompaniessosimplethattheyappeartobeoneenterprise.Informationonsalesoftheendproductisimmediatelyavailabletoallthecompaniesinthesupplychain.18Companieswillnotsimplybesellingproductsorservicesbutwillbesupportingentirecustomerprocesses.Transportbusinesseswilltakeonthelogisticsprocess,doctorswillsupportthewholetherapyprocessandinsurancecompanieswillhandletheclaimprocessinginsteadofthecustomer.196.2MobileCommerceMobilecommerce,whichisdefinedasanytransactionwithamonetaryvaluethatisconductedviaamobiletelecommunicationsnetwork.AsomewhatlooserapproachwouldbetocharacterizemobilecommerceastheemergingsetofapplicationsandservicespeoplecanaccessfromtheirInternet-enabledmobiledevices.Mobilecommerceisaneffectiveandconvenientwaytodeliverelectroniccommercetoconsumersfromanywhereandatanytime.20Therapidswitchofconsumersfromdesktopplatformstomobiledevicesisdrivingasurgeinmobilemarketingexpenditure.Comparedtoanelectroniccommercesystem,amobilecommercesystemismuchmorecomplicatedbecausecomponentsrelatedtomobilecomputinghavetobeincluded.Withouttrustandsecurity,thereisnomobilecommerceperiod.21Aswereviewdifferentaspectsofmobilesecurity,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatsecurityalwaysrequiresanoverallapproach.Asystemisonlyassecureasitsweakestcomponent,andsecuringnetworkingtransmissionisonlyonepartoftheequation.

22Theapplicationsofmobilecommercearewidespread.Thefollowinglistssomeofthemajormobilecommerceapplicationsalongwithdetailsofeach.

CommerceCommerceistheexchangeorbuyingandsellingofcommoditiesonalargescaleinvolvingtransportationfromplacetoplace.Itisboostedbytheconvenienceandubiquityconveyedbymobilecommercetechnology.23EducationManyschoolsandcollegesarefacingproblemsduetoashortageofcomputerlabspace,separationofclassroomsandlabs,andthedifficultyofremodelingoldclassroomsforwirednetworks.Tosolvetheseproblems,wirelessLANsareoftenusedtohookPCsormobilehandhelddevicestotheInternetandothersystems.Asaresult,studentsareabletoaccessmanyoftherequiredresourceswithoutneedingtovisitthelabs.24EntertainmentMobilecommercemakesitpossibletodownloadgames/images/music/videofilesatanytimeandanywhere,anditalsomakesonlinegamesmucheasiertoaccess.HealthCareThecostofhealthcareishighandmobilecommercecanhelptoreduceit.Byusingthetechnologyofmobilecommerce,physiciansandnursescanremotelyaccessandupdatepatientrecordsimmediately,afunctionthathasoftenincurredaconsiderabledelayinthepast.25InventoryTrackingandDispatchingJust-in-timedeliveryiscriticalforthesuccessoftoday’sbusinesses.Mobilecommerceallowsabusinesstokeeptrackofitsmobileinventoryandmaketimedefinitedeliveries,thusimprovingcustomerservice,reducinginventory,andenhancingacompany’scompetitiveedge.26TrafficUsingthetechnologyofmobilecommercecaneasilyimprovetrafficinmanyways.Forexample,mobilehandhelddeviceshavealreadyownedthecapabilitiesofaGPS(GlobalPositioningSystem),e.g.,determiningthedriver’sposition,givingdirections,andadvisingonthecurrentstatusoftrafficinthearea;atrafficcontrolcentercouldmonitorandcontrolthetrafficaccordingtothesignalssentfrommobiledevicesinvehicles.TravelandTicketingTravelexpensescanbecostlyforabusiness.Mobilecommercecouldhelpreduceoperationalcostsbyprovidingmobiletravelmanagementservicestobusinesstravelers.27adequate 足夠的，恰當(dāng)?shù)腶dministrative 管理的，行政的analyst 分析家，化驗(yàn)員boost 增加，促進(jìn)，提高cellular 蜂窩狀，多孔的comfortable 舒適的，放松的commodity 商品，日用品considerable 相當(dāng)大的，應(yīng)考慮的crucial 決定性的，關(guān)鍵性的28description 描述，形容dispute 辯論，爭論expenditure 經(jīng)費(fèi)，費(fèi)用，支出handheld 手持，手握merchandise 商品，貨物，經(jīng)商metropolitan 大城市的，大都市的middleware 中間件monetary 貨幣的，金錢的29purchase 購買，采購seamlessly 無空隙地，無停頓地telecommunication 電信threat 威脅，恐嚇transparently 顯然地，易察覺地trust

信任，相信ubiquity 到處存在，普遍存在vulnerability 脆弱性，致命的30[1]Recently,theemergenceofwirelessandmobilenetworkshasmadepossibletheadmissionofelectroniccommercetoanewapplicationandresearchsubject:Mobilecommerce,whichisdefinedasanytransactionwithamonetaryvaluethatisconductedviaamobiletelecommunicationsnetwork.譯文：最近，無線網(wǎng)絡(luò)和移動網(wǎng)絡(luò)的出現(xiàn)使得電子商務(wù)進(jìn)入了新的應(yīng)用及科研主題：移動商務(wù)。移動商務(wù)可以定義為：通過移動的無線電通信網(wǎng)絡(luò)進(jìn)行的涉及貨幣價(jià)值的任何交易。本句的“wirelessandmobilenetworks”作主語的定語，“whichisdefinedas…”作非限定性定語從句。31[2]Realizingtheadvantagestobegainedfrommobilecommerce,manymajorcompanieshavebeguntooffermobilecommerceoptionsfortheircustomers.譯文：很多大公司已經(jīng)意識到移動商務(wù)帶來的好處，開始為客戶提供移動商務(wù)選擇。本句的分詞結(jié)構(gòu)“Realizingtheadvantages…”作狀語。32[3]Comparedtoanelectroniccommercesystem,amobilecommercesystemismuchmorecomplicatedbecausecomponentsrelatedtomobilecomputinghavetobeincluded.譯文：與電子商務(wù)系統(tǒng)相比，移動商務(wù)系統(tǒng)要復(fù)雜得多，因?yàn)樗仨毎c移動計(jì)算相關(guān)的成分。本句的“Comparedtoanelectroniccommercesystem”是條件狀語，由“because”引導(dǎo)的是原因狀語從句。33[4]Tosolvetheseproblems,wirelessLANsareoftenusedtohookPCsormobilehandhelddevicestotheInternetandothersystems.譯文：為了解決這些問題，通常用無線局域網(wǎng)將計(jì)算機(jī)或移動手持設(shè)備連接到互聯(lián)網(wǎng)或其他系統(tǒng)。本句的“Tosolvetheseproblems”作目的狀語。34[5]Mobilecommerceallowsabusinesstokeeptrackofitsmobileinventoryandmaketimedefinitedeliveries,thusimprovingcustomerservice,reducinginventory,andenhancingacompany’scompetitiveedge.譯文：移動商務(wù)讓企業(yè)可以跟蹤其移動庫存并適時(shí)地投遞，這樣可以改善客戶服務(wù)、減少庫存并增強(qiáng)公司的競爭力。本句的“tokeeptrackof…”作賓語補(bǔ)足語，“thusimprovingcustomer…”是目的狀語。35ElectronicPaymentTheInternetpaymentmeansconductingfundtransfer,moneyreceivinganddisbursingelectronically.Internetpayment,sometimescalledelectronicpayment,isdevelopedforthedemandofE-commerceapplications.36Thedigitalcashsystemisconstructedbasedondigitalsignatureandcryptographtechniques.Thissystemmostlytakesuseofthepublic/privatekeypairsmethods.Sincethedigitalcashisonlyadigitalnumber,soitneedstobeverifiedasauthentic.37AnothermechanismforInternetpaymentise-check.ItsformeristhefinancialEDIsystemusedinValueAddedNetworks.Someelectronicchecksoftwarecanbepackedinsmartcard.Thus,clientscanbringitveryconvenientlyandcanwritechecksatanycomputersite.38Anelectronicbankisnotarealbank,itisavirtualbank,inwhich,thebankers,softwaredesigners,andhardwareproducersandISPsworktogether.Thesenewtypesofbankserversoftware,whichadoptupthemoderninformationtechnologies,canprovideconvenient,real-time,secureandreliablebankservices.Theycanalsoprovideotherrelevantservices,suchasstockquotation,taxandpolicesconsultation,exchangeandinterestratesinformation.396.3ArtificialIntelligenceDefinitionsofartificialintelligencevaryalongtwomaindimensions.Oneisconcernedwiththoughtprocessesandreasoning,theotheraddressesbehavior.Allthisgivesusfourpossiblegoalstopursueinartificialintelligence:systemsthatthinklikehumans,systemsthatthinkrationally,systemsthatactlikehumansandsystemsthatactrationally.40TheGoalsofArtificialIntelligence（1）ActinghumanlyTuringdefinedintelligentbehaviorastheabilitytoachievehuman-levelperformanceinallcognitivetasks,sufficienttofoolaninterrogator.Roughlyspeaking,thetestheproposedisthatthecomputershouldbeinterrogatedbyahumanviaateletype,andpassesthetestiftheinterrogatorcannottellifthereisacomputerorahumanattheotherend.41（2）ThinkinghumanlyIfwearegoingtosaythatagivenprogramthinkslikeahuman,wemusthavesomewayofdetermininghowhumansthink.Weneedtogetinsidetheactualworkingofhumanminds.Iftheprogram’sinput/outputandtimingbehaviormatcheshumanbehavior,thatisevidencethatsomeoftheprogram’smechanismsmayalsobeoperatinginhumans.42（3）ThinkingrationallyTherearetwomainobstaclestothisapproach.Firstly,itisnoteasytotakeinformalknowledgeandstateitintheformaltermsrequiredbylogicalnotation,particularlywhentheknowledgeislessthan100%certain.Secondly,thereisabigdifferencebetweenbeingabletosolveaproblem“inprinciple”anddoingsoinpractice.Evenproblemswithjustafewdozenfactscanexhaustthecomputationalresourcesofanycomputerunlessithassomeguidanceastowhichreasoningstepstotryfirst.43（4）ActingrationallyActingrationallymeansactingsoastoachieveone’sgoals,givenone’sbeliefs.Anagentisjustsomethingthatperceivesandacts.Inthisapproach,artificialintelligenceisviewedasthestudyandconstructionofrationalagents.44ApplicationsofArtificialIntelligence（1）Speechrecognition（2）Understandingnaturallanguage（3）Gameplaying（4）Expertsystems45RoboticsMostofartificialintelligencewilleventuallyleadtorobotics.Mostneuralnetworking,naturallanguageprocessing,imagerecognition,speechrecognition/synthesisresearchaimsateventuallyincorporatingtheirtechnologyintotheepitomeofrobotics—thecreationofafullyhumanoidrobot.46Thefieldofroboticshasbeenaroundnearlyaslongasartificialintelligence.Roboticsisanabsolutelyfascinatingfieldthatinterestsmostpeople.Asresearchfrommoreseriousroboticsprojectsfilterdownintothecommercialarenaweshouldlookforwardtosomeveryinteresting(andcheap)virtualpets.47apparently 清楚地，顯然地bacterial 細(xì)菌的behavior 行為，舉止conclusion 結(jié)論extrapolate 推斷，外推guidance 指導(dǎo)，領(lǐng)導(dǎo)hazardous 危險(xiǎn)的，冒險(xiǎn)的interrogator 詢問者introspection 內(nèi)省，反省obedient 服從的，順從的48obstacle 妨礙，障礙ontology 存在論，本體論pattern 模范，典型rationality 合理性recognition 識別synthesis 合成vacuum 真空whereas 然而，鑒于49[1]Roughlyspeaking,thetestheproposedisthatthecomputershouldbeinterrogatedbyahumanviaateletype,andpassesthetestiftheinterrogatorcannottellifthereisacomputerorahumanattheotherend.譯文：概略地說，他提出的試驗(yàn)是由一個(gè)人通過電傳打字機(jī)來向計(jì)算機(jī)提出問題，如果這個(gè)人不知道另一端是人還是計(jì)算機(jī)，那么該試驗(yàn)就算通過了。本句的“Roughlyspeaking”是插入語，“thatthecomputer…”是表語從句，“if

”引導(dǎo)的是條件狀語。50[2]Ifwearegoingtosaythatagivenprogramthinkslikeahuman,wemusthavesomewayofdetermininghowhumansthink.譯文：如果我們說一個(gè)給定的程序能像人一樣思考的話，我們必須有一些方法能確定人是怎樣思考的。本句由“if

”引導(dǎo)條件狀語，“determininghowhumansthink”作定語，修飾“way”。51[3]Oncewehaveasufficientlyprecisetheoryofthemind,itbecomespossibletoexpressthetheoryasacomputerprogram.譯文：一旦我們有了一個(gè)足夠準(zhǔn)確的智能理論，就有可能把該理論表示為計(jì)算機(jī)程序。本句由“Once”引導(dǎo)時(shí)間狀語從句，“it”指代后面的不定式短語。52[4]Thedevelopmentofformallogicinthelate19thCandearly20thCprovidedaprecisenotationforstatementsaboutallkindsofthingsintheworldandtherelationsbetweenthem.譯文：19世紀(jì)后期和20世紀(jì)初期形式邏輯的發(fā)展為世界上所有事物及彼此之間關(guān)系的陳述提供了一套精確的符號。本句的“formallogic”作定語，修飾主語“Thedevelopment”；而“inthelate19thCandearly20thC”是時(shí)間狀語；“for”后面的是賓語補(bǔ)足語。53[5]AccordingtotheOxfordDictionary,arobotisan“apparentlyhumanautomaton,intelligentandobedientbutimpersonalmachine”.譯文：按照牛津字典的解釋，機(jī)器人是“外觀像人的自動化裝置，是智能的、服從的但不受感情影響的機(jī)器”。本句的“AccordingtotheOxfordDictionary”作狀語，“is”后面的部分都是表語。54IntelligentTechnologiesArtificialintelligenttechnologiesattempttounderstandintelligententitiesbecausetheconstructedintelligententitiesareinterestingandusefulintheirownright.Itisclearthatcomputerswithhuman-levelintelligencewouldhaveahugeimpactonoureverydaylivesandonthefuturecourseofcivilization.Themostcommonartificialintelligenttechnologieswhichwearegoingtoanalyzeare:NaturalLanguage,Robotics,PerceptiveSystems,ExpertSystems,NeuralNetworksandIntelligentSoftware.55Naturallanguageislanguages,includingidiomsthatareusedbyhumans.Naturallanguagefocusesoncomputerspeechrecognitionandspeechgeneration.Likehumans,robotsneedeyesandearsinordertoorienttheirbehavior.Thisfiledofresearch,whichissometimescalled“patternrecognition”,hasfocusedlargelyonmilitaryapplicationssuchasphotoreconnaissanceandmissilecontrolandnavigation.56Expertsystemsarerelativelyrecentsoftwareapplicationsthatseektocaptureexpertiseinlimiteddomainsofknowledgeandexperienceandapplythisexpertisetosolvingproblems.Neuralnetworksareusuallyphysicaldevicesthatelectronicallyemulatethephysiologyofanimalorhumanbrains.57Anintelligentrobotisbasicallyonethatmustbecapableofsensingitssurroundingsandpossessintelligenceenoughtorespondtoachangingenvironmentinmuchthesamewayaswedo.Suchabilitiesrequirethedirectapplicationofsensoryperceptionandartificialintelligence.Muchresearchinroboticshasbeenandisstillconcernedwithhowtoequiprobotwithvisualsensors“eyes”andtactilesensors“fingers”.58IntelligentSoftware（1）FuzzyLogicFuzzyLogic,arelativelynew,rule–baseddevelopmentinAI,consistsofavarietyofconceptsandtechniquesforrepresentingandinferringknowledgethatisimprecise,uncertain,orunreliable.Fuzzylogiccancreaterulesthatuseapproximateorsubjectivevaluesandincompleteorambiguousdata.

59（2）GeneticAlgorithmsSomeartificialintelligencetechnologiesareusingproblem-solvingapproachesfoundinnature.Geneticalgorithmsareoneexample.Thealgorithmsstartwithbuildingblocksthatuseprocessessuchasreproduction,mutation,andnaturalselectionto“breed”solutions.Assolutionsalterandcombine,theworstonesarediscarded,andbetteronessurvivetogoonandelectronicallybreedwithotherstoproduceevenbettersolutions.60（3）IntelligentAgentsThetasksthatanintelligentagentperformsforauserrequirethecharacteristicsofspecificity,repetitiveness,andpredictability.Agentscanalsoworkforabusinessprocessorasoftwareapplicationandeasilyoutperformhumanswhentheyfunctionatahighlevel.616.4NeuralNetworksandExpertSystemAneuralnetworkisasetofprocessingunits(nodes)joinedbylinksthroughwhichtheycommunicate.Eachunitischaracterizedbyitsactivationstatewhichchangesintime.Fromthecurrentunit’sactivationstate,asignalitsendsintothenetworkiscalculated.62Thissignaliscarriedoverthelinkstoothernodes.Duringthetransmissionitmaybeweakenedorstrengthened,dependinguponthelink’scharacteristics.Signalsreachingaunitfromitsneighboursarecombinedintoaninputsignal,fromwhichthenextactivationstateofthatunitiscomputed.63Neuralnetworkscomprisethefollowingelements：

Setofnodes

Links

Rulesforcalculatingtheinputsignal

Activationfunction

Outputsignalfunction64AnArtificialNeuralNetworkhasseveraladvantages,becauseitresemblestheprinciplesoftheneuralsystemstructure.

Learning

Autoorganization

Tolerancetofaults

Flexibility

Realtime65Multi-layernetworksuseavarietyoflearningtechniques,themostpopularbeingback-propagation.Heretheoutputvaluesarecomparedwiththecorrectanswertocomputethevalueofsomepredefinederror-function.Byvarioustechniquestheerroristhenfedbackthroughthenetwork.Usingthisinformation,thealgorithmadjuststheweightsofeachconnectioninordertoreducethevalueoftheerrorfunctionbysomesmallamount.66Anexpertsystemisasetofprogramsthatmanipulateencodedknowledgetosolveproblemsinaspecializeddomainthatnormallyrequireshumanexpertise.Anexpertsystem’sknowledgeisobtainedfromexpertsourcesandcodedinaformsuitableforthesystemtouseinitsinferenceorreasoningprocesses.Theexpertknowledgemustbeobtainedfromspecialistsorothersourcesofexpertise,suchastexts,journalarticles,anddatabases.67Expertsystemsdifferfromconventionalcomputersystemsinseveralimportantways.1．Expertsystemsuseknowledgeratherthandatatocontrolthesolutionprocess.Muchoftheknowledgeusedisheuristicinnatureratherthanalgorithmic.2．Theknowledgeisencodedandmaintainedasanentityseparatefromthecontrolprogram.Assuch,itisnotcompiledtogetherwiththecontrolprogramitself.Thispermitstheincrementaladditionandmodificationoftheknowledgebasewithoutrecompilationofthecontrolprograms.683．Expertsystemsarecapableofexplaininghowaparticularconclusionwasreached,andwhyrequestedinformationisneededduringaconsultation.4．Expertsystemsusesymbolicrepresentationsforknowledgeandperformtheirinferencethroughsymboliccomputationsthatcloselyresemblemanipulationsofnaturallanguage.5．Expertsystemsoftenreasonwithmeta-knowledge;thatis,theyreasonwithknowledgeaboutthemselves,andtheirownknowledgelimitsandcapabilities.69TheexploratorynatureofAIandexpertsystemprogrammingrequiresthatprogramsbeeasilyprototyped,tested,andchanged.AIprogramminglanguagesandenvironmentsaredesignedtosupportthisiterativedevelopmentmethodology.Afurtherfeatureofexpertsystemsistheiruseofheuristicproblem-solvingmethods.Itisinterestingtonotethatmostexpertsystemshavebeenwrittenforrelativelyspecialized,expertleveldomains.70activation 激活，觸發(fā)consultation 咨詢converge 收斂，聚集designate 指定，選定empirically 經(jīng)驗(yàn)性地，以經(jīng)驗(yàn)為主地exploratory 探索的，探究的gradually 逐步地，逐漸地heuristic 啟發(fā)式71inference 推論，推理inspection 檢查，視察iterative 迭代的，反復(fù)的journal 雜志，報(bào)紙justification 正當(dāng)理由neural 神經(jīng)的，神經(jīng)系統(tǒng)的perceptron 感知器recommendation推薦，介紹72recompilation 重新編譯reliance 依賴，依靠shortcut 捷徑，近路sigmoid S形，S形的specialist 專家suitable 合適的，適當(dāng)?shù)膕yntactic 句法的theoretical 理論的，理論上的thumb 拇指73[1]Afterrepeatingthisprocessforasufficientlylargenumberoftrainingcyclesthenetworkwillusuallyconvergetosomestatewheretheerrorofthecalculationsissmall.譯文：這些操作重復(fù)了相當(dāng)多個(gè)訓(xùn)練周期后，網(wǎng)絡(luò)通常收斂到某個(gè)狀態(tài)，該狀態(tài)下計(jì)算誤差很小。本句中的“After”引導(dǎo)的是時(shí)間狀語，“wheretheerrorofthecalculationsissmall”作定語，修飾“somestate”。74[2]Someofthesearedesignatedinputnodes,someoutputnodes,andin-betweenarehiddennodes.譯文：這些節(jié)點(diǎn)中的一些節(jié)點(diǎn)被指定為輸入節(jié)點(diǎn)，一些指定為輸出節(jié)點(diǎn)，在這兩者之間的是隱藏節(jié)點(diǎn)。這是一個(gè)并列句，共有三部分，表語分別是“designatedinputnodes”“outputnodes”“hiddennodes”。75[3]Thisprocessisthenrepeated,withtheresultsbeingpassedthroughsubsequentlayersofnodesuntiltheoutputnodesarereached.譯文：把計(jì)算結(jié)果傳給后續(xù)層的節(jié)點(diǎn)，重復(fù)這個(gè)過程直至到達(dá)輸出節(jié)點(diǎn)。本句的主句是“Thisprocessisthenrepeated”，其后的“withtheresults…”作狀語。76[4]Asthetrainingprocessproceeds,theconnectionweightsaregraduallymodifiedaccordingtocomputationalrulesspecifictothelearningalgorithmbeingused.譯文：隨著訓(xùn)練過程不斷推進(jìn)，連接點(diǎn)的權(quán)值根據(jù)特定的學(xué)習(xí)算法的計(jì)算規(guī)則逐漸改變。本句中的“Asthetrainingprocessproceeds”作狀語，“accordingto…”是分詞結(jié)構(gòu)作狀語。77[5]Explanationsareimportantforahumanexpert,suchasadoctororanengineer,ifheorsheistoaccepttherecommendationsfromacomputer.譯文：對醫(yī)生或工程師等人類專家來說，如果要他或她接受計(jì)算機(jī)的建議，合理的解釋很重要。本句中的“adoctororanengineer”作為“ahumanexpert”的同位語，“if

”引導(dǎo)的是條件狀語從句。78KnowledgeManagementTheknowledgemanagementmodelimpliesthatthoseorganizationsbestabletocollect,index,storeandanalyzeknowledgehaveanadvantageovertheircompetitors.Withknowledgemanagement,systemsareputinpl