Chapter-7-Ergonomics-工業(yè)工程專業(yè)英語-教學(xué)課件

Chapter7InfluencingOthers:

EInterpersonalPersuasion

Chapter7InfluencingOthe1LearningObjectives

Whenyouhavefinishedthischapteryoushouldbeableto:Relatecommunicationtoattitudesandvalues.Recognizethedifferencebetweenattitudesandvalues.Explainthedifferencebetweeninstrumentalandterminalvalues.Describethecomponentsofattitudes.DiscussFritzHeider’sbalancetheoryasamodelofattitudechangeandpointoutsomeofthelimitationsofHeider’smodel.Explainhowpeopleresolveimbalances.Explainsomeofthevariablesthatdeterminewhichpersuasivestrategyisselectedanddescribetherelationshipofpowertointerpersonalinfluence.Definecompliance-gainingstrategiesandgiveanexample.Giveanexampleofacompliance-resistingstrategy.Discusswaystoimproveyourskillsininfluencingothers.LearningObjectives

Whenyouh2Aclassmatecloselyfollowsyououtoftheclassroomandinthehallwayaskstoborrowyournotestostudyforanupcomingexam.Sincethisclassmateissomeoneyouwouldliketoknowbetter,sinceyouwerenotplanningtoreviewyournotestonight,andsince,atleastfromalloutwardappearances,youthinkyoucantrustthisperson,youcomplywiththerequestsaying,“Allright,butpleasebringthembacktoclasstomorrowsoIcanusethemtomorrownight.”Youareseatedintheno-smokingsectionofarestaurant.Atthetablenexttoyouamanandawomansitdowntotalk.Bothproceedtolightupcigarettes.Youtrytomakeeyecontactsoyoucanpointoutthe“NoSmoking”sign,butyouareunabletodoso.Yougatherupyourcourage,gofindthemanager,andexplaintheproblem.Themanagerapproachestheirtable,pointstothe“NoSmoking”sign,andasksthecoupletomove.Theycomply.Aclassmatecloselyfollowsyo3Chapter-7-Ergonomics-工業(yè)工程專業(yè)英語-教學(xué)課件4Chapter-7-Ergonomics-工業(yè)工程專業(yè)英語-教學(xué)課件5Inthischapter,Iwillfirstdiscusstherelationshipofcommunicationtoattitudesandvalues.Whyshouldwestudyattitudesandvaluesinthefirstplace?ThenIwillexamineattitudesandvaluesspecifically.Whatarethey,andhowdotheyrelatetoeachother?Inthethirdsection,Iwillofferanexplanationofbalancetheoryasamodelofattitudechange.Howareattitudeschanged?Iwillthenlookatthepositiveandnegativeaspectsofattitudechange.Thissectionincludesinformationonthedurationofattitudechange,theprocessofselectingstrategiesforattitudechange,andtheethicsofinterpersonalinfluence.Compliancegainingandcomplianceresistingarediscussed,aswellasthevariablesthataffectourchoiceofcompliancestrategy.Finally,I’lldiscussimprovingskillsininfluencingothers.Inthischapter,Iwillfirst6CommunicationandAttitudesandValues

Whatareattitudesandvaluestodowithinterpersonalcommunication?First,speechcommunicationisaformofbehavior.Studyingattitudesandvaluesgivesusinsightintothewhyofhumanbehavior.Wecanlookatwhatissaidbyexaminingverbalcommunication,andwecanstudyhowitisbeingsaidbyanalyzingnonverbalcomponents.Rememberfromtheprecedingchapterthatthewordsweuseareanindicatorofwhatwearethinking;thenonverbalsareanindicatorofouremotionalresponsetowhatwearethinking.Butadeeper,moreessentialquestioniswhyisitbeingsaid?Andtheanswertothisquestiontiesintothewholewebofhumanexperiencethatmakeseachofusunique.CommunicationandAttitudesan7Second,therootsforwhatpeoplesaylieintheirattitudesandvalues.Thus,ifwewishtotouchpeopledirectlyanddeeply,wemustdosobytouchingtheseroots.True,wecannotalwaysknowtheexactnatureoftheroots.But,knowingthattherearerootsandthatthemoreweunderstandthoserootsthebetterwewillbeequippedtodealwiththem,willhelpuscommunicatewithothersinadirectandprofoundmanner.Third,suchknowledgecanaidusininterpersonalcommunicationbecauseitcanguideusinprobingfortherootssupposeonedayyouhearafriendmakeaseeminglyfrivolousremarkthatexpressesapositiveattitudetowardsuicide.Youknowthatyourfriendhasbeendepressed,andhassufferedsomesmallfailuresandrejectionslately,soyouhavereasonforconcern.Youmaynotwanttopursuethisattitudeimmediately,butyoumightstartprobingsubtly.Hasyourfriendhadanydirectexperienceinvolvingsuicide?Thesuicideofafriendorfamilymembercanhaveapowerful,lastingeffect.Howmuchdoesshevaluelife?Doesshevalueherownlife?Doesitappearthatshehasconcretereasonsforliving?Second,therootsforwhatpeo8Ifyoudiscovershehasaweakvaluesystemsupportingliving,thisiswhereyoucouldconcentratefuturecommunications:showherhowvaluablesheistoyouandtoothers.Emphasizethecontributionshehastomake,orhowmuchothershavetogainfromherknowledgeorexpertise.Whatyouwanttodois,inasense,offerapositivevaluesystemtosupplanthernegativeone.Whatifyourprobingdoesnotrevealanegativevaluesystemafterall?What’sleft?Youmightfindoutifherremarkwasprimarilyanemotionalresponsetoaparticularfrustration.Alowgradeonapaper,abrushoffbyanoldfriend,orbeingjiltedbyarelationshippartner.Asyouprobetheemotionalbasis,youmaydiscoveravaluesystemoperatingthatyoudidnotknowabout.Thedepressionyoudetectedattheoutsetisreal,andyourfriendisexperiencinganemotionalresponsetoatrying,complicatedsituationoverwhichshehasnocontrol.Herfatherandmotherareintheprocessofgettingadivorce,andthissituationistearingyourfriendapartemotionally.Atthemomentshefeelsasthoughheronlyoutletissuicide;itisapparentthatsheneedsseriouscounseling.Ifyoudiscovershehasaweak9Thevaluesystemoperatingherecanbeexpressedsuccinctly:Yourfriendvaluesfamilysecurity(marriage,thetraditionalfamily).Whentheseroots(values)aredisturbed,attitudechangesarelikelytooccur,oratleast,attitudinalfluctuations.Whatyourprobinghasdetermined,then,isthatyourfriend’semotionalresponse(theattitude)isaresultofvaluesaboutherparentsandherfamily(thevaluesystem).Atthatpoint,youcanmakeyourcommunicationwithhermorespecificandpurposeful:trytoshowherthatherparents’divorceneednotdestroyher,toletherknowthatshehasalargegroupofconcernedfriends,andtoencouragehertoseeaprofessionalcounselor.Althoughtheexampleisextended,itdemonstrateshowunderstandingtheserootscanmakeourcommunicationmorepreciseandpurposeful.Itaddsa“depth”dimensiontoourcommunicationthatallowsustogobeyondsuperficial,everydayinteraction.Thevaluesystemoperatingher10AttitudesandValues

Whatexactlyisan“attitude”?Attitudesareintangibleconcepts.Theyaregenerallyreferredtoasgeneraltendenciesofpeopletoactinacertainwayundercertainconditions.Thetendencytofeeldespondentaftergettingbackapaperwithalowgrade,thetendencytobeconcernedaboutyourappearancewhenaroundmembersoftheoppositesex,orthetendencytofeelasthoughyouaregettingabargainregardlessofthetypeofproductyoubuyduringasalewouldallbeattitudesunderthisdefinition.Morevspecifically,however,thewordattitudeistakentomeanatendencytoevaluateaperson,thing,orideaeitherfavorablyorunfavorably.Theobjectsofyourattitudescouldbeinanimateobjects,livingthings,experiences,ideas,orevents.Sometimespeople’sattitudesarededucedfromtheirbehavior.Forexample,fromthepreviousexampleswemightdeducethatyouhaveanunfavorableattitudetowardgettinglowgrades,feelfavorablyaboutlookinggoodformembersoftheoppositesex,orfeelfavorablyaboutgettingbargains.Ourbehaviorandcommunicationhabitsarebased,toalargeextent,onourattitudes.Buttoproperlyunderstandanddiscussattitudes,wemustknowaboutvaluesbecauseattitudesandvaluesarecloselyinter-related.Becauseourrealinteresthereisonattitudesandhowattitudescanbechanged,wewillreturntoafullerdiscussionofattitudesafterintroduction.AttitudesandValues

Whatexac11Values

Thereareaboutasmanydefinitionsofvaluesastherearewritersonthesubject.Onehelpfulapproachdefinesthemasmattersofimportance,asdistinctfrommattersoffact.Asmattersofimportance,valuesprovideenduringstandardsoryardsticksthatguideouractions,attitudes,comparisons,evaluations,andevenourjustificationofselfandothers.Becausetheyguideourattitudes,theyneedtobeconsideredfirst.Itistheirbasicorfundamentalnaturethatcloselyalignsthemwithourself-conceptandputsthematthecenterofourpersonalitystructure.Theyfromtherootsforsuchstronglyheldbeliefsaslife,liberty,andthepursuitofhappiness.Andvaluesmostlikelydeterminewhichclubs,groups,organizations,andassociationswejoin:becausetheysupportthesamevaluesaswedo.Valuescanbeorganizingsystemsforattitudes.Ifwevaluehonesty,forexample,thisvaluemayprovideguidelinesforforminganddevelopingattitudes.Wemayhavefavorableattitudestowardthepolice,controllingplagiarism,tellingthetruth,obeyingtrafficsigns,followingdirections,andsoon.Valuesareusuallyenduringbecausetheyrelatetothewayweconductourlives;theyprovideuswithguidelinesforourbehavior.Theyinfluenceourbehavior—ourcommunication—sothatitisconsistentwiththeachievementofourgoals.TherelationshipofvaluesandattitudesisshowninFigure7.1.Values

Thereareaboutasmany12Valuescanbeclassifiedasinstrumentalorterminal.AccordingtoMiltonRokeach,awell-knownscholarofhumanvalues,instrumentalvaluesarethosethatinfluenceourdailydecisions—suchasbeingambitious,cheerful,honest,andpolite.Theyprovidethestandardsthatweuseonadailybasis.Terminalvaluesaregoalsthatwestrivefor.Forexample,wedesirehappiness,maturelove,security,self-respect,andwisdom.Rokeach’slistofinstrumentalandterminalvaluesisprovidedinTable7.1.Oncethingmayhavebecomeobvioustoyou:Wearelikelytohaveasmallnumberofvalueswhereasthenumberofattitudesweholdismany.Rokeachclaimsthatthehumanvalueshelistsareuniversal.Ofcourse,theprioritywegivetoanysinglevaluedependsonoursocietyandontheindividual.Butthesearethevaluesthatserveasstandardsforbehaviorandjudgment.Valuescanbeclassifiedasin13Table7.1Rokeach’sinstrumentalandterminalvalues.

InstrumentalValuesTerminalValuesAmbitiousAcomfortablelifeBroadmindedAnexcitinglifeCapableAsenseofaccomplishmentCheerfulAworldatpeaceCleanAworldofbeautyCourageousEqualityForgivingFamilysecurityHelpfulFreedomHonestHappinessImaginativeInnerharmonyIndependentMatureloveIntellectualNationalsecurityLogicalPleasureLovingSalvationObedientSelf-respectPoliteSocialrecognitionResponsibleTruefriendshipSelf-controlledWisdomTable7.1Rokeach’sinstrumen14Attitudes

Attitudesexistinternally.Wederivethemfromdifferentsourcesandholdthemwithdifferentdegreesofstrength.Attitudesrelatetothings,people,andconcepts.Ingeneral,weacquirethemasaresultofourexperiences:wemayhaveafavorableattitudetowardanimalsbecauseourparentsallowedustohavepetsaschildren,ortowardsreadingbecauseourparentsreadtousoften.Peers,teachers,parents,andeventelevisionpersonalitiesshapeourattitudes.Themoreexperienceswehave,themorevariedourattitudesarelikelytobe.Eachattitudehasfourcharacteristics:direction,intensity,salience(importance),anddifferentiation.Attitudes

Attitudesexistinte15Direction.Anattitude’sdirectionmaybefavorable,unfavorable,orneutral(nodirection).Intalkingwithothers,itisoftenimportanttoknowthedirectionoftheirattitudes.Ifweareinterestedinpersuadingthem,directionbecomesvitallyimportant.Howwemightbegin,whatwordsorargumentswechoose,orhowwestructureourapproachdependsonwhethertheotherperson’sattitudeisfavorable,unfavorable,orneutral.Whenwasthelasttimeyouwantedtoconvincesomeoneofsomething?If,forexample,youwantedtopersuadeaclassmatetotakeacomputercoursewithyou,wouldn’titbehelpfultoknowhowthestudentfeltaboutcomputersandtheircontributiontohisorhercareer?Toknowhowthisclassmatefeelsaboutcomputerswouldbetoknowthedirectionofhisorherattitude.Intensity.Theintensityofanattitudereferstoitsstrength.Ifapersonwewishtopersuadeholdsaparticularattitudewithgreatintensity,thereislittlelikelihoodthatwewillchangeit.Intensitycanvaryfromzero(absolutelynone)toinfinity(apersonwillingtodieforanattitude).Variouspeoplemayholdattitudesinthesamedirectionyetdifferradicallywithrespecttotheirintensity.Howmightintensitybereflectedintheexampleregardingcomputers?Ifyourealizedthestudentpassionatelyhatedcomputers,statistics,andmathematics,youmightrefrainfromapproachinghimorherabouttakingacomputercourse,thinking,ofcourse,thatyoureffortswouldhavelittleresult.Themoreintenseanattitude,themorelikelyitistoproduceconsistentbehavior.Direction.Anattitude’sdir16Salience.Saliencereferstotheperceivedimportanceofattitudes.Ifyouwereanartstudentandhatedcomputers,statistics,andmathematics,thisattitudemightnotbeasimportant—salient—foryouas,perhaps,forastudentinbusinessadministration.Themorethatthingsaffectyoudirectly—haveastronginfluenceonyourlife—themorelikelyitisthatattitudesregardingthosethingswillbesalient,evenhighlysalient,foryou.Anattitudethatissalientislesslikelytochangeorbechanged.Salience.Saliencereferst17Differentiation.Ourdiscussionofdirection,intensity,andsaliencemayhavesuggestedthatattitudesaresolitaryorisolatedelements.Yetattitudeshaveexistalone.Thatis,theyarepartofaninterrelatedmix.Attitudeswithalargenumberofsupportingbeliefsarehighindifferentiation;thosethatarebasedonfewbeliefsarelowindifferentiation.Youmaybelievethatateacherisgoodbecauseheorsheisknowledgeable,organized,concernedaboutstudents,prompt,efficient,prepared,andhumorous.Yourattitudetowardthisteacherwouldbehighindifferentiationbecauseitisrelativelycomplex.Ontheotherhand,supposeyouvotedagainstacandidateinthelastelectionsimplybecauseheorshesupportedthecurrentadministration.Yourattitudetowardthatperson,basedonthisonebelief,wouldberelativelylowindifferentiation.Whenattemptingtochangeanattitude,itishelpfultoknowthedegreeofdifferentiationofthatattitude.Themorecomplexitis,themoredifficultitistochange.Itshouldbepointedout,however,thatsomeattitudeswhichappearsimple—lowindifferentiation—maybeverycomplexoncetheyareexploredindepth.Intheexampleregardingthecandidatewhosupportedthecurrentadministration,yourattitudecouldbeveryhighindifferentiationifyouwerereallyvotingagainsttheadministration’sstandontheeconomy,foreignaffairs,education,concernforthepoor,andexplorationofouterspace.Differentiation.Ourdiscus18TryThis

Listalltheclubs,groups,organizations,andassociationstowhichyoucurrentlybelong—eitherformallyorinformally.Now,placealargecheckbesidethosethathavethesame—ornearlythesame—valuesasyoudo.Canyouarticulateoneortwoofthespecificvaluesthateachclub,group,organization,orassociationactuallyespouses?Ifoneofthoseorganizationsweretochangeitsvalues,wouldyouleaveit?Howmuchofachangewouldittake?Howeasilycouldyouchangetoconformtothisgroup?Ifyouwantedtoinitiateachangeinthegroup’svalues,couldyoudoit?Howwouldyougoaboutit?

ConsiderThisAnattitudecanbelikenedtaminiaturetheoryinscience,havingsimilarfunctionsandsimilarvirtuesandvices.Anattitude,likeatheory,isaframeofreference;savestime;becauseitprovidesusabasisforinductionanddeduction,organizesknowledge;hasimplicationsfortherealworld;andchangesinthefaceofnewevidence.—MiltonRokeach,Beliefs,Attitudes,andValues:ATheoryofOrganizationandChange(SanFrancisco:Jossey-Bass,1968),p.131.TryThis

Listalltheclubs,g19BalanceTheory:AModelofAttitudeChange

Whenoutattitudesaresodeeplyingrainedthatwearehardlyawareofthem,theyareverydifficulttochange.And,similarly,itisdifficultforustobringaboutattitudechangeinothers.Butattitudechangecananddoestakeplace,especiallyifwearetryingtobelessrigidandmoreopenandself-aware.Theprocessofattitudechangecanpromotegrowth(whenweridourselvesofanunhealthybias)oritcanbemanipulativewhenwetrytopersuadesomeonetoadoptanattitudewehold.Let’slookathowthisprocesstakesplace.Asacommunicationsourceorreceiver,weshouldbeawareofwhathappenswhenwestateanattitudetoanotherperson(orviceversa)andwhenwetrytoeffectsuccessfulattitudechange.ThemodelofattitudechangewewilluseisoneoriginallyformulatedbyFtitzHeider,anditwillhelpyouunderstandthefundamentalsoftheprocess.Thetheoryrestsonthreeassumptions:(1)thatpsychologicalimbalanceisunpleasantoruncomfortable;(2)thatweseektomaintainbalanceandtoreduceimbalance;and(3)thatonewaywecanachievebalance,oratleastreduceimbalance,istomodifyourattitudes.Balanceismentalandemotionalsteadiness.BalanceTheory:AModelofAtt20Itisnotdifficulttothinkofexamplesthatdemonstratetheconceptsofbalanceandimbalance.Ifyoulikeaparticularprofessoryounotonlyspeakfavorablyofhimorher,butyoualsolookspecificallyfornicethingstosay.IfyouarearegisteredDemocrat,youwillgenerallyvoteforDemocraticcandidates.Conservativessupportpositionsthatreflecttheirphilosophy.Itiseasytogenerateexamplesofimbalance.Youreturnfromamoviewithafriendanddiscoversheloveit;youhatedit.Youlikefreedomandlackofrestrictive.Aprofessoryouadmirerecommendsabookthatyoufinddistasteful.Awarenessofsimilarimbalancesmayrevealtheunpleasantnessordiscomfortofsuchsituations.ThemodelofattitudechangethatfollowsiscalledHeider’sBalanceTheory.FritzHeiderdevelopedamodelinwhichPreferstooneperson,Orepresentsanotherperson,andXstandsforthetopicbeingtalkedabout.Thisisausefulwaytopicturetheattitudechangeprocess.Thinkofyourselfaspersonone,orP.TherelationshipsbetweenyouandOandXwillberepresentedbyplusandminussigns.Aplussignindicatesapositiveattitude;aminussign,anegativeattitude.Heiderproposedthatininterpersonalrelations,youareinastateofbalanceifthepeopleyoulikehavethesameattitudesyoudo.Youareinastateofbalance,too,ifpeopleyoudislikeholddifferentattitudesfromyoursonthesametopics.AccordingtoHeider,wheneveryouhavethree+’sortwo–’s,therelationshipwillbebalanced.Itisnotdifficulttothinko21TryThis

Hereisabriefwaytoexaminesomeofyourattitudesoneducation.Completethefollowingstatements:Ilikeclassesthat:Ateacherisapersonwho:Studentswhopayfortheirowneducation:Iliketextbooksthat:Peoplewhocanusetheireducationbestare:Astudentwhocheatsonexams,seldomdoeshisorherownwork,andtendstoavoidclasses:Attendanceinclasses:Comparedwithmostotherstudents,myeducationhasbeen:IfIweretomakeonesuggestionlikelytoimprovehighereducation,itwouldbeto:Mandatoryeducationshouldendwith:TryThis

Hereisabriefwayt22InFigure7.2,letXbeacertainmovie.InA,youliketheotherpersonandbothofyoulikethemovie(X).InB,youliketheotherpersonbutneitherofyoulikesthemovie.InC,youlikethemovieandtheotherpersondoesnot,butyoureallydonotcareforhimorheranyway.InD,youdonotcarefortheotherpersonorforthemovie,eventhoughtheotherpersonlikesthemovie.TheseareallwhatHeidercallsstatesofbalance.Wefeelcomfortableinsuchsituationsbecauseeverythingisinequilibrium.If,ontheotherhand,youhavethree–’sortwo+’s,therelationshipwillbeunbalanced.InEofFigure7.2,youdon’tliketheotherpersonandneitherofyoulikesthemovie.InF,bothofyoulikethemoviebutyoudon’tliketheotherperson.InG,youlikethemovieandtheotherperson,buttheotherpersondislikethemovie.InH,youdislikethemoviebutyouliketheotherpersonandheorshelikesthemovie.TheseareallwhatHeiderwouldcallstatesofimbalance.It’sprettyobviousthatyouaremorecomfortablewhenpeopleyoulikethinkthewayyoudo.InFigure7.2,letXbeacert23Whenwearetalkingwithapersonwelikeverymuchandwerealizethatthetwoofushavedifferentattitudes,wemaytrytobringourattitudestogether;thatis,wemaytrytobringourattitudestogether;thatis,wemaystrainforbalance.Howhardwetrydependsonhowstrongandhowsalientorimportantourownattitudeis.Italsode