組織學(xué)雙語課件

組織學(xué)

雙語課件第一章組織學(xué)緒論

一、定義組織學(xué)是研究機(jī)體微細(xì)結(jié)構(gòu)及其相關(guān)功能的科學(xué)。二

、研究方法簡介

1、一般光學(xué)顯微鏡術(shù)2、組織化學(xué)和細(xì)胞化學(xué)術(shù)

3、免疫細(xì)胞化學(xué)術(shù)4、同位素示蹤術(shù)

5、原位雜交術(shù)6、細(xì)胞和細(xì)胞化學(xué)定量術(shù)

7、電子顯微鏡術(shù)8、組織培養(yǎng)術(shù)三、學(xué)習(xí)方法幾要點(diǎn)

CHAPTER1

INTRODUCTIONTOHISTOLOGY

OUTLINE

Histologyisabranchofbiomedicalscience,whichstudiescellsandtheextracellularmatrixoftissuesandorgans.Tissuesareaggregatesorgr-oupsofcellsorganizedtoperformoneormorefunctions.

Therearefourbasictissuetypesinthebody:epithelialtissue,connectivetissue,musculartissueandnervoustissue.Anorganismadeupofseveraldifferenttypesoftissuesthatperformaspecialfunction.

Thesmallsizeofcellsandmatrixcomponentsmakeshistologydependentontheuseofandimprovementinmicroscopes.

Themostcommonmethodusedinthestudyoftissuesbylightmicroscopyisthepreparationofparaffinsectionsmainlyincludingfixation,embeddingandsection-ing.Sectionsarethenroutinelystainedwithdyesofhematoxylin

andeosin(H&Estaining).

Tissuecomponentsthatstainmorereadilywithbasicdyesaretermedbasophilic;thosewithanaffinityforaciddyesaretermedacidophilic.Moredetailedinterpretationofthebodystructurerestswithelectronmicroscopy,boththetransmissionandscanningelectronmicroscopy,becauseofitsgreatmagnificationandhighresolution.

Histochemistryismethodstodetectchemicalsubstancesincellsandtissuesinsitu.Forexample,theperiodicacidSchiff(PAS)reactionisamethodtodemonstratepolysaccharides.Mostofthesemethodsarebasedonspecificchemicalreactions.

Theyususllyproduceinsolublecoloredorelectondenseproductsthatenablethe

localizationofspecificsubstancesbymeansoflightorelectronmicroscopy.Therearebothdirectandindirectmethodsforantigenlocalizationbyimmunohistochemistry,basedonspecificantigen-antibodyreactions

taggedbyavisiblelabel.

Severalvariationsofimmunohistochemicalmethods,suchasthePAPmethodandABCmethod,havebeendevelopedthatpossessbothhighspecificityandsensitivity.Throughinsitu

hybridizationspecificDNAsequences(suchandgenes)orgeneexpression,throughthepresenceofmRNAcanbelocalizedintissuesections,smears,orchromosomesofsquashedmitoticcells.

Cellculturepermitsdirectanalysisofcellbehavior.Livingcellsaregrowninchemicallydefinedsyntheticmediatowhichserum,nutrients,growthfactorsarefrequently

added.Tissueengineeringisanovel,

developingtechnologycombinedcell

culturewithmaterialscience.

Thetissueengineeredskinandcartilage,amongothers,haveachievedagreatsuccessandbeenusedfortissuerepairofpatientswithasevereburnandarticularjointdiseases,respectively.二、被覆上皮(CoveringEpitheleum)的類型和結(jié)構(gòu)1.單層扁平上皮(SimpleSquamousEpitheleum)①內(nèi)皮襯貼在心、血管和淋巴管腔面的單層扁平上皮

②間皮分佈在胸膜、腹膜和心包膜表面的單層扁平上皮

③其他肺泡、腎小囊壁層。2、單層立方上皮(SimpleCuboidalEpithelium)

分佈:腎小管、甲狀腺濾泡等處。

3、單層柱狀上皮(SimpleColumnarEpithelium)

分佈：胃腸、子宮輸卵管上皮

4、假複層纖毛柱狀上皮

(PseudostratifiedCiliatedColumnarEpithelium)

分佈：呼吸道腔面5、複層扁平上皮(StratifiedSquamous

Epithelium)

角化複層扁平上皮皮膚表面

未角化複層扁平上皮口腔、食管等腔面6變移上皮(移行上皮)

(TransitionalEpithelium)

分佈：排尿管道腔面

收縮狀態(tài)：層數(shù)多

擴(kuò)張狀態(tài)：層數(shù)減少、細(xì)胞變扁三、上皮組織的特殊結(jié)構(gòu)(SpecializedStructures

ofEpithelialCell)

1、游離面(FreeSurface)

（1）細(xì)胞衣（糖衣）(Glycocalyx)：薄層絨毛狀的複合

糖。

功能：粘著、支持、保護(hù)、物質(zhì)交換、識(shí)別。

（2）微絨毛(Microvilli)：上皮細(xì)胞游離面伸出的細(xì)小

指狀突起。

功能：參與細(xì)胞吸收物質(zhì)的作用。

（3）纖毛(Cilia)：上皮細(xì)胞游離面伸出的能擺動(dòng)的較長

突起。

功能：定向擺動(dòng)，可排出細(xì)菌和灰塵。

2、側(cè)面(LateralSurface)

（1）緊密連接（閉鎖小帶）

(Tightjunction)

功能：機(jī)械性連接作用、封閉

細(xì)胞頂部細(xì)胞間隙，防

止大分子物質(zhì)進(jìn)入組織

內(nèi)。

（2）中間連接（粘著小帶）

(Intermediatejunction)

功能：粘著作用、保持細(xì)胞

形狀和傳遞細(xì)胞間收

縮力。

（3）橋粒（粘著斑）

(Desmosome)

功能：牢固的細(xì)胞連接

（4）縫隙連接（通訊連接）

(Gapjunction)

功能：交換小分子物質(zhì)和離

子及傳遞電衝動(dòng)

3、基底面(BasalSurface)

（1）基膜(Basementmembrane)

電鏡下（EM）分三層：透明板、緻密板（基

板）、網(wǎng)織板（網(wǎng)板）

薄者：透明板和基板

功能：支持連接作用，引導(dǎo)上皮移動(dòng)，影響上皮

分化

（2）質(zhì)膜內(nèi)褶(Plasmamembraneinfolding)

功能：擴(kuò)大基底面表面積，有利水和電解質(zhì)轉(zhuǎn)運(yùn)

（3）半橋粒(Hemidesmosome):連接上皮和基膜

[思考題]1、上皮組織有哪些特點(diǎn)？2、上皮組織的分類依據(jù)及分類？3、內(nèi)皮和間皮的概念4、上皮組織有哪些特殊結(jié)構(gòu)及各種特殊結(jié)構(gòu)的功能CHAPTER2

EPITHELIALTISSUE

OUTLINE

Epitheliumconsistsofcellsthatarecloselyappliedtoeachotherwithverylittleintercellularsubstance.Thecellsthatmakeupanepitheliumhavedistinctpolarity.Theyexhibitfunctionallydistinctsurfacedomains,namely,afreesurfaceandabasalsurface.

Bloodvesselsdonotpenetratethebasementmembranetoentertheepitheliallayers.Epithelialtissueshavethe

followingprincipalfunctions:protection

absorption,secretion,andexcretion,etc.

Epetheliumisclassifiedaccordingtothearrangementandshapeofitscells.Epitheliumwhichisonlyonecelldeepiscalledsimple;

epitheliumwhichismorethanonecelldeepiscalledstratified.Onthebasisofcellshapeepitheliumisdesignatedassquamous,cuboidal,orcolumnar,thusbyjoiningthesedescriptiveterms,wemaydescribeanepitheliumassimplesquamous,asstratifiedsquamous,orstratifiedcuboidal,etc.

Epitheliaarecustomarilyclassifiedaccordingtotheirstructureandfunctionintotwomaintypes:coveringepitheliumandglandularepithelium.Coveringepitheliaaretissueswhosecellsareorganizedinmembranouslayersthatcovertheexternalsurfaceor

linethecavitiesofthebody.Intwo

locations,epitheliumhasspecialnames,

endotheliumandmesothelium.

Endotheliumlinestheinnersurfaceoftheheart,bloodvessels,andlymphaticvessels.Mesotheliumlinestheserousmembranesofthebody,namely,thepleura,the

pericardiumandtheperitoneum.

Twospecialcategoriesofepitheliumarepseudostratifiedandtransitional.Pseudostratifiedepitheliumhasthe

appearanceofbeingstratified.

Someofthecellsdonotreachthefree

surface;however,allrestonthebasementmembrane.Thus,itisactuallyasimpleepithelium.transitionalepitheliumisanameappliedtotheepitheliumliningthepelvisofthekidney,theureters,theurinary

bladder,andpartoftheurethra.

Itisastratifiedepitheliumthathasratherspecificmorphologiccharacteristicsandfunctionallyaccommodateswelltodistension.

Thefreesurfaceofepithelialcellsmaycontaincilia,stereocilia,ormicrovilliaccordingtothefunctionofthecells.Ciliaenablethecellstomovemucusor

othermaterialsalongthesurface.

Stereociliaarespecialsurfacemodificationsthatarefoundintheductusepididymisandtheface.Stereociliaarespecialsurfacemodificationsthatarefoundintheductusepididymisandtheductusdeferens.Microvilliarefoundonthesurfaceofcellsthat

engageinabsorptiveactivity.

Therearefourtypesofcelljunctionsbetweenepithelialcells,includingtightjunction,junction.Thestructureconsistingofatleasttwotypesofcelljunctionisthejunctionalcomplex.Separatingtheepitheliumfromtheintermediatejunction,desmosomeandgapunderlyingconnectivetissueisabasementmembrane.

Whenthebasementmembraneisexaminedwiththeelectronmicroscope,itisfoundtoconsistofathinamorphouslayer,designatedthebasallamina,andathickerlayercontainingdelicatereticularfibers,designatedthereticularlamina.Thebasallaminaisimmediatelysubjacenttotheepithelium

andthereticularlaminafacesthe

underlyingconnectivetissue.

Theplasmamembraneinfoldingonthebasalsurfaceoftheepithelialcellresultsinanincreasedareaofplasmamembranewhichallowstheharboringofgreaternumbersofmembraneassociatedprotinssuchasthoseemployedincellularrespirationorphoto-synthesis.Inthecontactzonebetweenanepithelialcellandthebasallamina,hemidesmosomesarefoundtotaketheshapeofhalfthedesmosomewheretheyprovideadhesiontothebasallamina.

Accordingtothewaythesecretoryproductsleavethecell,glandsmaybeclassifiedasexocrineglandorendocrinegland.Exocrineglandshaveasecertoryportionandtheglandducts.Thisconnectiontakestheformoftubularductslinedwithepithelialcellsthroughwhichtheglandularsecretionspasstoreachthesurface.

Endocrineglandsareductless,andtheirsecretionsarepickedupandtransported

totheirsiteofactionbythebloodstream.

Theproductsofendocrinegland

arecalledhormones.

第三章結(jié)締組織(ConnectiveTissueCT)

[目的與要求]

1、掌握結(jié)締組織的特點(diǎn)和分類；

掌握疏鬆結(jié)締組織的結(jié)構(gòu)與

功能。

2、瞭解緻密結(jié)締組織、脂肪組織

和網(wǎng)狀組織基本結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)和

功能。

一、疏鬆結(jié)締組織

(LooseConnectiveTissue)

(一)細(xì)胞(Cell):

1、成纖維細(xì)胞(Fibroblast):

LM：扁平、星形多突、胞質(zhì)弱嗜鹼性、核卵圓、

著色淺、核仁明顯；

EM：豐富粗面內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)、

游離核糖體和發(fā)達(dá)

的高爾基複合體；

功能：產(chǎn)生纖維和基質(zhì)；

纖維細(xì)胞：靜止?fàn)顟B(tài)

2巨噬細(xì)胞

(Macrophage)(組織細(xì)胞histocyte)

LM：形態(tài)不規(guī)則、核小、著色深、胞質(zhì)豐富、嗜酸性

EM：表面皺褶、胞質(zhì)內(nèi)大量溶酶體吞飲小泡、吞噬體、

殘餘體

功能：趨化性定向運(yùn)動(dòng)、吞噬、分泌多種生物活性物

質(zhì)、調(diào)節(jié)機(jī)體免疫反應(yīng)。3、漿細(xì)胞(PlasmaCell)

LM：圓或卵圓，核圓偏位，染色質(zhì)呈輻射狀、胞質(zhì)嗜

鹼性；

EM：豐富粗面內(nèi)質(zhì)網(wǎng)、游離核糖體、發(fā)達(dá)高爾基複合

體；

功能：合成和分泌抗體4肥大細(xì)胞(MastCell)

LM：圓或卵圓、核小、胞質(zhì)充滿嗜鹼性、異染性顆粒

功能：引起過敏反應(yīng)5脂肪細(xì)胞(FatCell)

6未分化的間充質(zhì)細(xì)胞(Undifferentiated

MesenchymalCell)

7、白細(xì)胞(Leukocyte,WhiteBloodCell)

(二)纖維(Fiber)

膠原纖維(Collagenousfiber)彈性纖維(Elasticfiber)網(wǎng)狀纖維(Reticularfiber)又名白纖維黃纖維嗜銀纖維染色HE染色呈淺紅色醛複紅染色呈紫色銀染呈黑色物理性狀韌性大彈性大構(gòu)成支架(三)基質(zhì)(GroundSubstance)膠狀

1、蛋白多糖(Proteoglycan)——構(gòu)成分子篩

透明質(zhì)酸（長鏈大分子）、蛋白多糖亞單位、

連接蛋白

2、糖蛋白(Glycoprotin)

3、組織液(Tissuefluid)二、緻密結(jié)締組織(DenseConnectiveTissue)

1、規(guī)則的(RegularDenseConnectiveTissue)2、不規(guī)則的(IrregularDenseConnectiveTissue)3、彈性組織(ElasticTissue)

三、脂肪組織(AdiposeTissue)

大量群集脂肪細(xì)胞由疏鬆結(jié)締組織分隔

四、網(wǎng)狀組織(ReticularTissue)1、網(wǎng)狀細(xì)胞(reticularcells)：星形有突起，核較大著色淺功能：產(chǎn)生基質(zhì)、網(wǎng)狀纖維

2、網(wǎng)狀纖維(reticularfiber)3、基質(zhì)(groundsubstance)[思考題]

1、疏鬆結(jié)締組織的細(xì)胞組成；

2、成纖維細(xì)胞、巨噬細(xì)胞、漿細(xì)胞、肥大細(xì)胞的形態(tài)與功能；

3、疏鬆結(jié)締組織中有哪些纖維；

4、何謂分子篩，簡述其結(jié)構(gòu)與功能。CHAPTER3

CONNECTIVETISSUEPROPER

OUTINE

Connectivetissueincludesavarietyoftissueswithdifferentfunctionalpropertiesbutwithcertaincommoncharacteristicsthatallowthemtobegroupedtogether.Severaltypesofconnectivetissuesareresponsibleforprovidingandmaintainingforminthebody,andprovidingamatrixthatconnectsandbindsthecellsandorgansandultimatelygivessupporttothebody.

Soitisnowprobablymoreappropriatetousethetermsupportingtissueinsteadofconnectivetissue.

Connectivetissuesoriginatefromthemesenchyme,anembryonictissueformedbymesenchymalcellsandanabundantandviscousextracellularsubstance.

Structurally,connectivetissueisformedbytwomajorclassesofcomponents:cellsandanextracellularmatrixthatincludesextracellularfibers,groundsubstance,andtissuefluid.Accordingtothecompositionandorganizationofcellularandextracellularcomponentsandtothespecialfunctions,connectivetissuesareclassifiedasconnectivetissueproper,cartilage,bone,andblood.

Theconnectivetissuepropercanbedividedintolooseconnectivetissueanddenseconnectivetissueaccordingtowhetherthefibersarelooselywovenordenselypacked.Inaddition,anumberofkindsofconnectivetissueproperwithspecialpropertiesarenamedsoastoindicatethepredominatingcomponentsoridentifyingfeature:adiposetissue,reticulartissueandmucoustissue,etc.

Looseconnectivetissue,alsocalledareolartissue,ischaracterizedbyarelativelylargenumberofdifferentcelltypes,looselyarrangedthinfibersandabundanceofgroundsubstance.Theprimarylocationoflooseconnectivetissueisbeneaththoseepitheliathatcoverthebodysurfaceandlinetheinternalsurfaceofthebody.Itisalsopresentinassociationwiththeepitheliumofglandsandsurroundsthesmallestvessels.

Thedenseconnectivetissuecanbesubdividedintoregularandirregulartypesaccordingtowhetherthefibershaveanorderedordisorderedarrangement.Skincontainsarelativelythicklayerofdenseirregularconnectivetissueinthedermis.Examplesofdenseregularconnectivetissueincludeligaments,tendons,andaponeuroses.

Adiposetissueisaspecializedformofconnectivetissueconsistingofadipocytesassociatedwitharichbloodsupply.Therearetwotypesofadiposetissue:yelloworwhite(orunilocular)andbrown(ormultilocular).

Reticulartissueconsistsofreticular

cellsandreticularfibers.

Thetypesofcellsfoundinlooseconnectivetissuecanbecategorizedeitherasfixedcellsoraswanderingcells.

Thecellsthatcomprisethefixedcellpopulationarerelativelystable;theynormallyexhibitlittlemovementandcanberegardedaspermanentresidentsofthetissue.Theyincludefibroblasts,macrophages,mastcells,adiposecells,andundifferentiatedmesenchymalcells.Thecellsthatcomprisethewanderingortransientpopulationaremostlythosethathavemigratedintothetissuefromtheblood

inresponsetospecificstimuli.

Theyincludeplasmacellsandleukocytes.

Thetypesofcellsaswellastheirrelativenumbersinlooseconnectivetissuereflectthefunctionalactivityofthetissue.Forexample,thefibroblastisresponsibleforproducingthefibersandgroundsubstance.Othercelltypes,suchasmacrophages,plasmacells,mastcellsandleukocytesareassociatedwiththe

defensesystemofthebody.

Connectivetissuefibersarepresentinvaryingamounts,dependingonthestructuralneedsorfunctionofthetissue.Fibersareproducedbyfibroblastsandcomposedofproteinsformedbylongpeptidechains.Dependingontheircharacterandcompositiontheyarereferredtoascollagenousfibers,reticularfibersandelasticfibers.Allthreetypesoffibersexistinlooseconnectivetissue.

Groundsubstanceisahighlyhydrophilic,viscouscomplexofanionicmacromoleculesthatoccupiesthespacebetweenthecellsandfibers.Groundsubstanceconsistslargelyofproteoglycansandstructureglycoproteins.Thephysicalpropertiesofgroundsubstanceanditsabilitytopermitdiffusionofoxygenandnutrientsbetweenthemicrovasculatureandad-jacenttissuesisduetotheproteoglycans.Connectivetissuesusuallycontainbloodvesselsandcanmediatetheexchangeofnutrients,metabolitesandwasteproductsbetweentissuesandthecirculatorysystemthroughtissuefluid.Thefunctionsofconnectivetissuealsoincludeconnecting,supporting,,protecting,defending,

repairingandstoringofwater,etc.

第四章軟骨(cartilage)和骨(bone)

[目的與要求]

1、掌握軟骨細(xì)胞的形態(tài)與功能；三種軟骨的纖維組成；

密質(zhì)骨骨板排列方式。

2、瞭解骨細(xì)胞的形態(tài)與功能；類骨質(zhì)和骨基質(zhì)的概念。

一、軟骨的結(jié)構(gòu)(StructureofCartilage)

1、軟骨組織(Cartilagetissue)

（1）軟骨細(xì)胞(Chondrocyte)

LM：小.扁圓.單個(gè)—圓.大.成群（同源細(xì)胞群）

軟骨陷窩、軟骨囊

（2）基質(zhì)(Cartilagematrix)

（3）纖維(Fibre)

2、軟骨膜(Perichondrium)

內(nèi)層含骨祖細(xì)胞(二)軟骨分類(Classificationof

Cartilage)

1、透明軟骨(Hyalinecartilage):

纖維為膠原原纖維、折光率與基質(zhì)相連、光鏡下

不易區(qū)分

2、彈性軟骨(Elasticcartilage):

大量彈性纖維3、纖維軟骨(Fibrouscartilage):

大量膠原纖維束(三)軟骨的生長方式(Growthofcartilage)

1、間質(zhì)生長（軟骨內(nèi)生長）

2、外加生長（軟骨膜下生長）二、骨(Bone)（一）骨組織(Osseoustissue)1、骨基質(zhì)(bonematrix)鈣化的細(xì)胞間質(zhì)

2、類骨質(zhì)(osteoid)有機(jī)成分骨板的結(jié)構(gòu)：同層纖維平行、相鄰層纖維垂直。（二）、骨組織的細(xì)胞

(Cellsinosseoustissue)

1、骨細(xì)胞(Osteocyte)骨陷窩、骨小管

2、骨祖細(xì)胞

(Osteoprogenitorcell)

幹細(xì)胞

3、成骨細(xì)胞

(Osteoblast)

分泌類骨質(zhì)4、破骨細(xì)胞(Osteoclast)溶解吸收骨質(zhì)

（三）長骨(LongBone)的結(jié)構(gòu)

1、骨松質(zhì)(Spongybone)

針狀、片狀骨小梁相互連接形成的多孔隙網(wǎng)架

2、骨密質(zhì)(Compactbone)

骨板排列方式

（1）環(huán)骨板：（外環(huán)骨板、內(nèi)環(huán)骨板）穿通管

（2）骨單位（哈佛系統(tǒng)）中央管、同心圓骨板

（3）間骨板

3、骨膜(Periosteum)骨外膜：穿通纖維、穿通管

骨內(nèi)膜：骨小梁表面、骨髓腔、中央管、穿通管

內(nèi)表面[思考題]1、骨細(xì)胞的形態(tài)及功能2、為何透明軟骨在光鏡下纖維不能區(qū)分3、骨細(xì)胞包括哪幾種細(xì)胞4、密質(zhì)骨骨板排列方式有幾種5、骨內(nèi)膜分佈在何處

Cartilageisatypeofconnectivetissuecomposedofcellscalledchondrocytesandhighlyspecializedextracellularmatrix.Chondrocytessynthesizeandmaintainmatrix.

CHAPTER4

CARTILAGEANDBONE

OUTLINE

Themainfunctionsofcartilagearetosupportsofttissuesandprovideaslidingareasforjoints,thusfacilitatingbonemovements.Thecartilageisessentialforthegrowthoflongbonesbothbeforeandafterbirth.

Cartilageisdevoidofbloodvessels.Thelargeamountofglycosaminohlycansinthematrixpermitsdiffusionofsubstancesbetweenbloodvesselsinthesurroundingconnectivetissue

andthechondrocytes.

Thethreetypesofcartilagearehyalinecartilage,thematrixofwhichcontainsanumberofcollagenousfibrils,elasticcartilage,thematrixofwhichcontainsalargenumberofelasticfibers,andfibrocartilage,whichcontains

coarsecollagenousfibers.

Boneisaspecializedformofconnectivetissuethatconsistsofcellsandextracellular

cacifiedmaterial,thebonematrix.Themineraliscalciumphosphateintheformofhydroxyapatitecrystals[Ca10(PO4)6(OH)2].Thisproducesanextremelyhardtissuecapableofprovidingsupportandprotection,andservesasastoragesiteforcalciumandphosphatetomaintainappropriatelevelsthroughoutthebody.

Therearefourtypesofcellspresent

inbone.Theosteocytesarewithinspaces

ofthebonematrixcalledlacunae.

Theosteocyteextendsnumerous

processesintolittletunnelscalledcanaliculi.Theprocessesofadjacentosteocytescommunicatebygapjunctions.

Acontinuousnetworkofcannaliculiandlacunaecontainingthecellsandtheirprocessesisformedthroughouttheentiremassofmineralizedtissue.Inadditiontoosteocytes,therearethreeotherbonecells.Osteoprogenitorcellscangiverisetotheosteoblasts.Osteoblastssecretetheextracellularmatrixofbone.Osteoclastsaremultinucleated

giantcellsinvolvedintheresorptionandremodelingofbonetissue.

Compactboneandspongybonemaybefoundinadultbone.Compactboneinalongboneislargelycomposedofosteons.Perforatingcanals(Volkman’scanals)arechannelsinlamellarbonethroughwhichbloodvesselstravelfromperiostealandendostealsurfacestoreachtheosteonalcanals.Besidesosteonscompactbonesalsocontainouterandinnercircumferentiallamerlaeandinterstitiallamellae.

Boneformationistraditionallyclassifiedasintramembranousossificationandendochondralossification.Intramembran-ousossificationissocalledbecauseittakesplacewithinmembranesofmesenchymaltissue.Mostoftheflatbonesareformedbyintramembranousossification.Italsocontributestothegrowthofshortbones

andthethickeningoflongbones.

Thediameterofunmyelinatdfibersareusuallysmall.InthePNS,allunmyelinat-edfibersareenvelopedwithinsimplecleftsoftheSchwanncellswhichdonnotformmyelinsheath.Inthemesenchymalcondensationlayer,thestartingpointforossificationiscalledprimaryossificationcenter.Theprocessbegins

whengroupsofmesenchymal

cellsdifferentiateintoosteoblasts,proteoglycansofthematrix(osteoid)..whichthensecretesthecollagenandThencalcificationfollows,resultingintheencapsulationofsomeosteoblastswhichthenbecomeosteocyets.EndochondralossificationtakesplacewithinacartilagemodelBasically,endochondralossificationconsistsoftwophases.Thefirstphaseishypertrophyanddestructionofthechondrocytesofthemodelofthebone.Inthesecondphase,.anosteogenicbudconsistingofosteogenicprecursorsandbloodcapillariespenetratesintothespacesleftbythedegeneratingTheundifferentiatedcellsgiverisetoosteoblasts,whichformanosseousmatrixontheremnantsofthecalcifiedcartilagematrix.

Inbothprocesses,thebonetissuethatappearsfirstisprimaryorimmature.

Primaryboneissoonreplacedbythedefinitivebone,referredtoassecondarybone.Duringbonegrowthareasofresorptionandareasoflamellarboneappearsidebyside.Thiscombinationofbonesynthesisandremovaloccursnotonlyingrowthingbonebutalsothroughout

adultlife,thoughitsrateofchange

isconsiderablyslow.

第五章

血液(blood)

[目的與要求]

1、掌握血細(xì)胞中紅細(xì)胞形態(tài)與功能；白細(xì)胞分類、組成及光

鏡結(jié)構(gòu)特點(diǎn)；網(wǎng)織紅細(xì)胞的特點(diǎn)

2、瞭解血液的組成與功能；造血幹細(xì)胞的概念及血液組成：

血漿血細(xì)胞

一、紅細(xì)胞(Erythrocyte,RedBloodCell)

形態(tài)：雙凹圓盤狀、無核、無細(xì)胞器，充滿血紅

蛋白，Wright’s染色磚紅色，中央淺、

周圍深

功能：攜帶O2和部分CO2，細(xì)胞膜特點(diǎn)

網(wǎng)織紅細(xì)胞(reticulocyte)：

煌焦油藍(lán)染色呈藍(lán)色細(xì)網(wǎng)或顆粒

EM：殘留核糖體

功能：繼續(xù)合成血紅蛋白功能二、白細(xì)胞(Leukocyte,WhiteBloodCell)

1、正常值

2、分類

胞質(zhì)有無特殊顆粒分為：有粒白細(xì)胞和

無粒白細(xì)胞

有粒白細(xì)胞分為：中性粒細(xì)胞50-70%、

嗜酸性粒細(xì)胞0.5-3%、

嗜鹼性粒細(xì)胞0-1%

無粒白細(xì)胞分為：單核細(xì)胞3-8%，

淋巴細(xì)胞20-30%。

（1）中性粒細(xì)胞

(Neutrophilicgranulocyte,Neutrophil)

形態(tài)特點(diǎn)：球形

①胞質(zhì)內(nèi)細(xì)小、均勻的淡紫色和淡紅色顆粒

②核桿狀或分葉（2-5葉）(2)嗜鹼性粒細(xì)胞(Basophilicgranulocyte,Basophil)

形態(tài)特點(diǎn)：球形

①胞質(zhì)內(nèi)大小不等、分佈不勻紫藍(lán)色顆粒

②核分葉或不規(guī)則，有顆粒覆蓋

功能：類似肥大細(xì)胞（致過敏）（3）嗜酸性粒細(xì)胞

(Eosinophilicgranulocyte,Eosinophil)

形態(tài)特點(diǎn)：球形

①胞質(zhì)內(nèi)粗大，均勻嗜酸性顆粒

②

核2-3葉

功能：抗過敏、抗寄生蟲（4）單核細(xì)胞(Monocyte)血液中最大的細(xì)胞

形態(tài)：圓或橢圓形、胞質(zhì)豐富、灰藍(lán)色，較多

細(xì)小嗜天青顆粒，核馬蹄形或腎形。

功能：一定吞噬功能

（5）淋巴細(xì)胞(Lymphocyte)

形態(tài)：圓或卵圓、胞質(zhì)少、天藍(lán)色、胞核大、著色深

功能：參與免疫反應(yīng)三血小板(血栓細(xì)胞)(BloodPlatelet)

骨髓巨核細(xì)胞脫落下的胞質(zhì)小塊

形態(tài)：雙凸扁盤狀、血塗片中聚集成群、多角形

功能：止血凝血中起重要作用

造血幹細(xì)胞（多能幹細(xì)胞）：生成各種血細(xì)胞的原始細(xì)胞

基本特徵1、很強(qiáng)增殘潛能2、多向分化能力3、自我複製能力

造血幹細(xì)胞造血祖細(xì)胞一個(gè)或幾個(gè)血細(xì)胞系定向

增殖分化

一定微環(huán)境某些因素調(diào)節(jié)[思考題]1、試述紅細(xì)胞的形態(tài)與功能2、網(wǎng)織紅細(xì)胞形態(tài)特點(diǎn)及功能3、各種白細(xì)胞的分類依據(jù)及功能CHAPTER5

BLOODANDHEMATOPOIESIS

OUTLINE

Bloodisconsideredasaspecializedconnectivetissue,consistingofformedelements,orbloodcell,andafluidintercellularsubstance,thebloodplasma,inwhichtheformedelementsaresuspended.Theformedelementsincludeerythrocytesorredbloodcells,leukocytesorwhitebloodcells

andplateletsorthrombocytes.

Accordingtothespecificgranulesexistedincytoplasma,leukocytesmaybeclassifiedintotwoclasses,granulocytesandagranulocytes.Basedonthedifferentspecificgranulesintheircytoplasma,granulocytesmaybefurtherclassifiedintoneutrophils,eosinophils

andbasophils.Agranulocytes

includelymphocytesandmonocyteswhichdonotpossessspecificgranules.

Bloodsmearisusuallyusedtoexaminethesize,shapeandmaturityofbloodcellsandalsousedtodeterminetherelativepercentageofeachtypeofleukocytes.Bloodroutinelystained

withaspecialmixtureofacidicandbasic

dyes,namedWrightorGiemsa.

Ifbloodisremovedfromthecirculatorysystem,itwillsoonclot.Eventuallythebloodclotbeginstocontractandexpressestheclear,yellowishfluidsupernatantcalledserum.Serumcontainsmanyofmoleculesfoundintheplasmaexceptfortheclottingfactorsandfibrinogen.Themostcommonandusefulwaytoseparateandanalyzethebloodanditscomponents

istoaddananticoagulant(e.gheparinorcitrate)tobloodremovedfrombody.

Whencentrifuged,bloodmaybeseparatedintothreelayers:upperlayer(plasma),intermediatelayerorbuffycoat(leukocytesandplatelets),lowermostlayer(erythrocytes).Thevolumeofpackederythrocyteperunitvolumeofbloodisdefinedasthehematocrit.

Thenormalvalueis40%~50%in

menand35%~$5%Iwomen.

Intheearlieststagesofembryogenesis,bloodcellarisefromyolksacmesoderm.Sometimelater,theliverandspleenserveastemporaryhematopoietictissue.Bythefourthmonthandthereafter,redbonemarrowbecomesthepredominanthematopoieticsite.Redbonemarrowconsistsofhematopoieticcells,hematopoieticstromalcellsandsinusoids.

Hematopoieticstromalcellsarethecorecomponentsofhematopoieticinductivemicroenvironment,whichisnotonlyasaframeworktosupportthedevelopmentofbloodcells,butalsoasasecretivesiteofmanygrowthfactorstoregulatehemato-poiesis.Bonemarrowproducesmyeloidlineagecells,andalsoproduceslymphoidcellsthatmigratetothelymphoidorgansandlymphoidtissueswherethevarioustypes

oflymphocyteareformed.

Hematopoiesisisthereforetheresultofsimultaneous,continuousproliferationanddiffererntiationofcellsderivedfromhemato-poieticstemcells.Self-renewalandpluripoten-tialdifferentiationarethepredominantfeatureofhematopoieticstemcells.Theproliferatingstemcellsformprogenitorsthatlosetheirpluripotentialityasdifferentiationprogressandmaintaintheirnumberbyactivityofstemcells.whichthemorpholo-giccharacteristics

canbeidentifiedforthefirsttime.Therateofcelldivisionisacceleratedinprogenitorandprecursorcellsandlargenumberofdifferentiated,maturecellsareproduced.Theoriginandmaturationofbloodcellsaretermed,respectively,erythropoiesis,granulopoiesis,monocytopoiesis,megakaryocytopoiesisandlymphocytopoiesis.

Hmatopoiesisisaverycomplexbiologicprocessthatisstrictlycontrolledbyhematopoieticinductivemicroenvironment.Itinvolvesthedirectand/orindirectregulation,suchasintercellularcommunicationbetweenhematopoieticcellsandhematopoieticstromalcells,theeffectofhematopoieticgrowth

factorsandsomesmallbiologic,activemoleculesonhematop