(英文)羅賓斯管理學(xué)考研筆記1-19章

Management(9tdEdition)羅賓斯《管理學(xué)》英文筆記（1-13）Chapter1introductiontomanagementandorganizationManagersManagerscoordinateandoverseetheworkofotherpeopletoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Non-managerialemployeesworkdirectlyonajobortaskandhavenoonereportingtothem.Classifyingmanagers:Topmanagersaremanagersatorneartheupperlevelsoftheorganizationwhoareresponsibleformakingorganization-widedecisionsandestablishingtheplansandgoalsthataffecttheentireorganization.Middlemanagersarethosebetweenthelowestandtoplevelsoftheorganizationwhomanagetheworkoffirst-linemanagers.First-linemanagersarethoseatthelowestlevelofmanagementwhomanagetheworkofnon-managerialemployeesandtypicallyaredirectlyorindirectlyinvolvedwithproducingtheorganization’sproductsorservicingtheorganization’scustomers.ManagementManagementinvolvescoordinatingandoverseeingtheworkactivitiesofotherssothattheiractivitiesarecompletedefficientlyandeffectively.Efficiencymeansdoingthingsrightorgettingthemostoutputfromtheleastamountofinputs.Effectivenessmeansdoingtherightthings,orcompletingactivitiessothatorganizationalgoalsareattained.ManagementfunctionsPlanninginvolvesdefininggoals,establishingstrategiesforachievingthosegoals,anddevelopingplanstointegrateandcoordinateactivities.Organizinginvolvesarrangeandstructureworktoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Leadinginvolvesworkingwithandthroughpeopletoaccomplishorganizationalgoals.Controllinginvolvesmonitoring,comparing,andcorrectingworkperformance.Managementroles(HenryMintzberg’smanagerialroles)Interpersonalrolesinvolvepeopleandotherdutiesthatareceremonialandsymbolicinnature.Informationrolesinvolvecollecting,receiving,anddisseminatinginformation.Decisionalrolesinvolvemakingchoices.InterpersonalrolesFigurehead象征性首腦，履行許多法律性或社會性的義務(wù)迎接來訪者；簽署法律文件Leader負(fù)責(zé)激勵下屬，承擔(dān)人員配備、培訓(xùn)及有關(guān)職責(zé)實際上從事所有的有下級參與的活動Liaison維護自行發(fā)展起來的外部關(guān)系和消息來源，從中得到幫助和信息發(fā)感謝信；從事外部委員會的工作；從事其他有外部人員參加的活動InformationrolesMonitor尋求和獲取各種內(nèi)部外部信息以便透徹理解組織與環(huán)境閱讀期刊和報告；與有關(guān)人員保持私人接觸Disseminator將從外部人員和下級處獲得的信息傳遞給組織其他成員舉行信息交流會；打電話方式轉(zhuǎn)達信息Spokesperson向外部發(fā)布組織的計劃、政策、行動、結(jié)果等召開董事會，向媒體發(fā)布信息DecisionalrolesEntrepreneur尋求組織和環(huán)境中的機會，制定改進方案以發(fā)起變革組織戰(zhàn)略制定和檢查會議，以開發(fā)新項目Disturbancehandler當(dāng)組織面臨重大的意外的混亂時負(fù)責(zé)采取糾正行動組織應(yīng)對混亂和危機的戰(zhàn)略制定和檢查會議Resourceallocator負(fù)責(zé)分配組織各種資源，制定和批準(zhǔn)相關(guān)決策調(diào)度、授權(quán)、開展預(yù)算活動，安排下級工作Negotiator在主要的談判中作為組織的代表參加與工會的合同談判Managementskills(RobertL.Katz)Technicalskillsarethejob-specificknowledgeandtechniquesneededtoproficientlyperformworktasks.Theseskillsaremoreimportantforfirst-linemanagers.Humanskillsrefertotheabilitytoworkwellwithotherpeoplebothindividuallyandinagroup.Theseskillsareequallyimportantforallmanagers.Conceptualskillsrefertotheabilitytothinkandtoconceptualizeaboutabstractandcomplexsituations.Theseskillsaremoreimportantfortopmanagers.Thechangesinmanager’sjob:Changingtechnology(digitization)Impact:shiftingorganizationalboundariesVirtualworkplacesMoremobileworkforceFlexibleworkarrangementEmpoweredemployeesChangingsecuritythreatsImpact:riskarrangementWorklife-personallifebalanceRestructuredworkplaceDiscriminationconcernsGlobalizationconcernsEmployeeassistanceIncreasedemphasisonorganizationalandmanagerialissuesImpact:redefinedvaluesRebuildingtrustIncreasedaccountabilityIncreasedcompetitivenessImpact:customerservice(Customerserviceisimportantbecausewithoutthem,mostorganizationswouldceasetoexist.Andemployeeattitudesandbehaviorsplayabigroleincustomersatisfaction.)Innovation(Innovationisimportantfororganizationstobecompetitive.)GlobalizationEfficiency/productivityOrganizationCharacteristicsoforganization:adistinctivepurpose,composedofpeople,andadeliberatestructure.Today’sorganizationsaremoreopen,flexible,andresponsivetochangesthanorganizationsoncewere.WhystudymanagementIt’simportanttostudymanagementforthreereasons:(1)theuniversalityofmanagement,(2)therealityofwork,and(3)therewardsandchallengesofbeingamanager.Theuniversalityofmanagementreferstothefactthatmanagersareneededinalltypesandsizesoforganizations,atallorganizationallevelsandworkareas,andinallgloballocations.Therealityofwork—thatisyouwilleithermanageorbemanaged.Rewards:Createaworkenvironmentinwhichorganizationalmemberscanworktothebestoftheirability.Haveopportunitiestothinkcreativelyanduseimagination.Helpothersfindmeaningandfulfillmentinwok.Support,coach,andnurtureothers,etc.Challenges:DohardworkMayhavemoreclericalthanmanagerialdutiesHavetodealwithavarietyofpersonalitiesOftenhavetomakedowithlimitedresources,etc.Chapter7FoundationsofPlanningPlanningPlanninginvolvesdefiningorganization’sgoals,establishinganoverallstrategyforachievingthosegoals,anddevelopingplanstointegrateandcoordinateworkactivities.Informalplanning,specificgoalscoveringaspecifictimeperiodarewrittenandsharedwithorganizationalmembers,andspecificplansexistforachievingthesegoals.Ininformalplanning,goalsareneverwrittendownorseldomtalkedwithotherorganizationalmembers.Informalplanningalsolackscontinuity.ThepurposeofplanningProvidingdirectiontomanagersandnon-managersalike.Reducinguncertainty.Minimizingwasteandredundancy.Establishinggoalsorstandardsusedincontrolling.TherelationshipbetweenplanningandperformanceFirst,generallyspeaking,formalplanningisassociatedwithpositivefinancialresults.Second,it’smoreimportanttodoagoodjobofplanningandimplementingtheplansthantodomoreextensiveplans.Next,instudieswhereformalplanningdidn’tleadtohigherperformance,externalenvironmentoftenwastheculprit.Finally,theplanning-performancerelationshipseemstobeinfluencedbytheplanningtimeframe.Goals:Goalsaredesiredoutcomes.Thetypesofgoals:financialgoalsarerelatedtothefinancialperformanceoftheorganization,whilestrategicgoalsarerelatedtoallareasofanorganizationperformance.Statedgoalsareofficialstatementofwhatanorganizationsays—andwhatitwantsitsvariousstakeholderstobelieve–itsgoalsare.Realgoalsarethegoalsthatanorganizationactuallypursues,anddefinedbytheactionsofitsmembers.Plans:Plansaredocumentsthatoutlinehowgoalsaregoingtobemet.Typesofplans:(breadth)strategicoroperational(Timeframe)longtermorshortterm(Specificity)directionalorspecific(Frequencyofuse)singleuseorstandingStrategicplansapplytoanentireorganization,whileoperationalplansencompassaparticularfunctionalarea.Longtermplansarethosewithatimeframebeyondthreeyears.Shorttermplansarethosecovingoneyearorless.Specificplansarecleardefinedandleavenoroomforinterpretation.Directionalplansareflexibleandsetoutgeneralguidelines.Asingle-useplanisaone-timeplananddesignedtomeettheneedsofauniquesituation.Standingplansareongoingplansthatprovideguidanceforactivitiesperformrepeatedly.TwoapproachestosettinggoalsTraditionalgoalsettingIntraditionalgoalsetting,goalssetbytopmanagerflowdownthroughtheorganizationandbecomesubgoalsforeachorganizationarea.Means-endschainisanintegratednetworkofgoalsinwhichgoalsachievedatlowerlevelsserveasthemeansforachievingthegoalsatthenextlevel.Managementbyobjectives(MBO)Managementbyobjectivesisaprocessofsettingmutuallyagreedupongoalsandusingthosegoalstoevaluateemployeeperformance.Sixcharacteristicsofwell-writtengoals:(1)writtenintermsofoutcomes,(2)measurableandquantifiable,(3)clearastoatimeframe,(4)challengingbutattainable,(5)writtendown,(6)communicatedtoallorganizationalmemberswhoneedtoknowthem.Fivestepsofsettinggoals:Reviewtheorganization’smissionEvaluateavailableresourcesDeterminingthegoalsindividuallyorwithinputfromothersWritedownthegoalsandcommunicatethemtoallwhoneedtoknowthemReviewresultsandwhethergoalsarebeingmet.Threecontingencyfactorsinplanning:themanager’slevelintheorganization,degreeofenvironmentuncertainty,andthelengthoffuturecommitments.TwoapproachestoplanningTraditionalapproachIntraditionalapproach,plansaredevelopedbytopmanagersandflowdownthroughotherorganizationlevels;thisapproachmayuseaformalplanningdepartment.MBOMBOapproachinvolvesmoreorganizationalmembersintheplanningprocess.Criticismsofplanning:Planningmaycreaterigidity.Planscan’tbedevelopedforadynamicenvironment.Formalplanscan’treplaceintuitionandcreativity.Planningmayfocusmanagers’attentionontoday’scompetition,notontomorrow’ssurvival.Formalplansreinforcesuccess,whichmayleadtofailure.Justplanningisn'tenough.Thesecriticismsarevalidifplanningisrigidandinflexible.Effectiveplanningintoday’sdynamicenvironmentManagersshoulddevelopplansthatarespecificbutflexible.It’salsoimportanttomaketheorganizationalhierarchyflatterandallowlowerorganizationallevelstosetgoalsanddevelopplans.Chapter8StrategicManagementDefinestrategicmanagement,strategy,andbusinessmodel.Strategicmanagementiswhatmanagersdotodevelopanorganization’sstrategies.Strategiesaretheplansforhowtheorganizationwilldowhateverit’sinbusinesstodo,howitwillcompetesuccessfully,andhowitwillattractandsatisfyitscustomersinordertoachieveitsgoals.Abusinessmodelishowacompanyisgoingtomakemoney.Givefourreasonswhystrategicmanagementisimportant.Itmakesadifferenceinhowanorganizationperforms.It’simportantforhelpingmanagerscopewithcontinuallychangingsituations.Organizationsarecomplexanddiverse.Strategicmanagementhelpstocoordinateandfocusemployees’effortsonwhatisimportant.It’srelatedtomanydecisionsmadebymanagers.Thesixstepsinthestrategicmanagementprocess.Thesixstepsare(1)identifythecurrentmission,goals,andstrategies;(2)doanexternalanalysis;(3)doaninternalanalysis;(4)formulatestrategies;(5)implementstrategies;and(6)evaluatestrategies.DefineSWOT.TheSWOTanalysisisananalysisofanorganization’sstrengths,weaknesses,opportunitiesandthreats.Strengthsareanyactivitiestheorganizationdoeswelloruniqueresourcesithas.Weaknessesaretheactivitiesorganizationdoesn’tdowellortheresourcesitneedsbutdoesn’thave.Opportunitiesarepositivetrendsintheexternalenvironment.Threatsarenegativetrends.Defineresources,capabilities,andcorecompetencies.Resourcesareanorganization’sassetsthatusedtodevelop,manufacture,anddeliverproductstoitscustomers.Capabilitiesareanorganization’sskillsandabilitiesindoingtheworkactivitiesneededinitsbusiness.Corecompetenciesarethemajorvalue-creatingcapabilities.Bothresourcesandcorecompetenciesdeterminetheorganization’scompetitiveweapons.Thethreetypesoforganization’sstrategiesAcorporatestrategyspecifieswhatbusinessacompanyisinorwantstobeinandwhatitwantstodowiththosebusinesses.Abusiness/competitivestrategyisastrategyforhowanorganizationwillcompeteinitsbusiness.Functionalstrategiesarethestrategiesusedbyanorganization’svariousfunctionaldepartmentstosupporttheorganization’scompetitivestrategy.Corporatestrategies.(growth,stability,renew)Thethreetypes:Withagrowthstrategy,anorganizationexpandsthenumberofmarketsservedorproductsofferedeitherthroughcurrentornewbusinesses.Thetypesofgrowthstrategiesincludeconcentration,verticalintegration(backwardandforward),horizontalintegration,anddiversification(relatedandunrelated).Withastabilitystrategy,anorganizationcontinuestodowhatitiscurrentlydoing.Arenewstrategyaddressorganizationalweaknessesthatareleadingtoperformancedecline.Thetwotypesofrenewstrategiesareretrenchmentandturnaroundstrategies.Aretrenchmentstrategyisashort-runrenewstrategyusedforminorperformanceproblems.Whileaturnaroundstrategyisusedwhenanorganization’sproblemsaremoreserious.BCGmatrixBCGmatrixisastrategytoolthatguidesresourcesallocationdecisionsonthebasisofabusiness’smarketshareanditsindustry’santicipatedgrowthrate.ThefourcategoriesoftheBCGmatrixarecashcows,stars,questionmarks,anddogs.Business/competitivestrategiesTheroleofcompetitiveadvantage:Anorganization’scompetitiveadvantageiswhatsetsitapart,itsdistinctiveedge.Acompany’scompetitiveadvantagebecomesthebasisofchoosinganappropriatebusinessorcompetitivestrategy.Porter’sfiveforcesmodelPorter’sfiveforcesmodelassessesthefivecompetitiveforcesthatdictatetherulesofcompetitioninanindustry:(1)threatofnewentrants,(2)threatofsubstitutes,(3)bargainingpowerofbuyers,(4)bargainingpowerofsuppliers,and(5)rivalry.Porter’sthreecompetitivestrategiesWithacostleadershipstrategy,anorganizationcompetesonthebasisofhavingthelowestcostinitsindustry.Withadifferentiationstrategy,anorganizationcompetesonthebasisofhavinguniqueproductsthatarewidelyvaluedbycustomers.Withafocusstrategy,anorganizationcompetesinanarrowsegment,witheitheracostadvantageoradifferentiationadvantage.Explainwhystrategicflexibilityisimportant.Strategicflexibilityistheabilitytorecognizemajorexternalchanges,toquicklycommitresources,andtorecognizewhenastrategicdecisionisn’tworking.Itisimportantbecausemanagersoftenfacehighlyuncertainenvironments.Explaine-businessstrategies.Managerscanusee-businessstrategiestoreducecosts,todifferentiatetheirfirm’sproductsandservices,ortotarget(focuson)specificcustomergroupsortolowercostsbystandardizingcertainofficefunctions.Anotherimportante-businessstrategyistheclicks-and-bricksstrategy,whichcombinesonlineandtraditionalstand-alonelocations.Howtobecomemorecustomeroriented.Strategiesmanagerscanusetobecomemorecustomerorientedinclude:GivingcustomerswhattheywantCommunicatingeffectivelywithcustomersCultivatingaculturethatemphasizescustomerservice.HowtobecomemoreinnovativeStrategiesmanagerscanusetobecomemoreinnovativeinclude:Decidingtheirorganization’sinnovativeemphasis(basicscientificresearch,productdevelopment,orprocessdevelopment)Decidingitsinnovationtiming(firstmoverorfollower)Chapter10organizationalstructureanddesignSixkeyelementsinorganizationaldesign.WorkspecializationDepartmentalizationChainofcommandSpanofcontrolCentralizationanddecentralizationFormalizationWorkspecializationTraditionalview:workspecializationisawaytodivideworkactivitiestoseparatejobtasks.Contemporaryview:workspecializationisanimportantorganizingmechanism,butitcanleadtoproblemswhencarriedtoextremes.DepartmentalizationHowjobsaregroupedtogetheriscalleddepartmentalization.Thefiveformsofdepartmentalization:Functionaldepartmentalization—groupsjobsaccordingtofunctionProductdepartmentalization—groupsjobsbyproductlineGeographicaldepartmentalization—groupsjobsbygeographicalregionProcessdepartmentalization—groupsjobsonproductorcustomerflowCustomerdepartmentalization—groupsjobsonspecificanduniquecustomersChainofcommandChainofcommandisthelineofauthorityextendingfromupperorganizationallevelstothelowestlevels,whichclarifieswhoreportstowhom.Authorityreferstotherightsinherentinamanagerialpositiontotellpeoplewhattodoandtoexpectthemtodoit.Responsibilityistheobligationorexpectationtoperformassignedduties.Unityofcommandisamanagerialprinciplethateachpersonshouldreporttoonlyonemanager.Traditionalview:thechainofcommandanditscompanionconcepts—authority,responsibility,andunityofcommand—wereviewedasimportantwaysofmaintainingcontrolinorganizations.Contemporaryview:they’relessrelevantintoday’sorganizations.SpanofcontrolSpanofcontrolisthenumberofemployeesamanagercaneffectivelyandefficientlymanage.Traditionalview:managersshoulddirectlysupervisenomorethanfiveorsixemployees.Contemporaryview:thespanofcontroldependsontheskillsandabilitiesofthemanagerandtheemployeesandonthecharacteristicsoftheworkbeingdone.CentralizationanddecentralizationCentralizationisthedegreetowhichdecisionmakingisconcentratedatupperlevelsoftheorganization.Decentralizationisthedegreetowhichlower-levelemployeesprovideinputoractuallymakedecisions.(Centralization—decentralizationisastructuredecisionaboutwhomakedecision—upper-levelmanagersorlower-levelemployees.)MorecentralizationEnvironmentisstable.Lower-levelmanagersarenotascapableorexperiencedatmakingdecisionsasupper-levelmanagers.Lower-levelmanagersdonotwantasayindecisions.Decisionsarerelativelyminor.Theorganizationisfacingacrisisortheriskofcompanyfailure.Companyislarge.Effectiveimplementationofcompanystrategiesdependsonmanagersretainingsayoverwhathappens.MoredecentralizationEnvironmentiscomplex,uncertain.Lower-managersarecapableandexperiencedatmakingdecisions.Lower-managerswantavoiceindecisions.Decisionsaresignificant.Corporatecultureisopentoallowingmanagersasayinwhathappens.Companyisgeographicallydispersed.Effectiveimplementationofcompanystrategiesdependsonmanagershavinginvolvementandflexibilitytomakedecisions.FormalizationFormalizationreferstohowstandardizedanorganization’sjobsareandtheextenttowhichemployeebehaviorisguidedbyrulesandprocedures.Today’sview:althoughformalizationisnecessaryforconsistencyandcontrol,manyorganizationstodayrelylessonittoguideandregulateemployeebehavior.Contrastmechanisticandorganicorganizations.Amechanisticorganizationisarigidandtightlycontrolledstructure.Anorganicorganizationisahighlyadaptiveandflexiblestructure.Mechanistic organicHighspecialization cross-functionalteamsRigiddepartmentalization cross-hierarchicalteamsClearchainofcommand freeflowofinformationNarrowspansofcontrol widespansofcontrolCentralization decentralizationHighformalizationlowformalizationThecontingencyfactorsthataffectorganizationaldesign:StrategyAnorganizationalstructureshouldsupportitsstrategy.Ifthestrategychanges,thestructureshouldalsochange.SizeAnorganizationalsizecanaffectitsstructureuptoacertainpoint.Onceanorganizationreachesacertainsize(usuallyaround2000employees),it’sfairlymechanistic.Technology(Woodward’sfindings)Anorganizationaltechnologycanalsoaffectitsstructure.Anorganicstructureismosteffectivewithunitproductionandprocessproductiontechnology.Amechanisticstructureismosteffectivewithmassproductiontechnology.(Unitproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsinunitsorsmallbatches.Massproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsinlargebatches.Processproductionreferstotheproductionofitemsincontinualprocess.)EnvironmentaluncertaintyInstableandsimpleenvironments,mechanisticdesignscanbemoreeffective.Thegreatertheuncertainty,themoreitneedstheflexibilityofanorganicdesign.Contrastthethreetraditionalorganizationaldesigns.Asimplestructureisonewithlowdepartmentalization,widespansofcontrol,authoritycentralizedinasingleperson,andlittleformalization.Strengths:Fast;flexible;inexpensivetomaintain;clearaccountability.Weaknesses:Notappropriateasorganizationgrows;relianceononepersonisrisky.Afunctionalstructureisanorganizationaldesignthatgroupssimilarorrelatedoccupationalspecialiststogether.Strengths:Cost-savingadvantagesfromspecialization(economiesofscale,minimalduplicationofpeopleandequipment);employeesaregroupedwithotherswhohavesimilartasks.Weaknesses:Pursuitoforganizationalgoalscancausemanagerstolosesightofwhat’sbestfortheoverallorganization;functionalspecialistsbecomeinsulatedandhavelittleunderstandingofwhatotherunitsaredoing.Adivisionalstructureismadeupofseparatebusinessunitsordivisions.Strengths:Focusonresults—divisionmanagersareresponsibleforwhathappenstotheirproductsorservice.Weaknesses:Duplicationofactivitiesandresourcesincreasecostandreduceefficiency.Describethecontemporaryorganizationaldesign.TeamstructureInateamstructure,theentireorganizationismadeupofworkteams.Advantages:Employeesaremoreinvolvementandempowered.Reducedbarriersamongfunctionalareas.Disadvantages:Noclearchainofcommand.Pressureonteamstoperform.MatrixandprojectstructureMatrixisstructurethatassignspecialistsfromdifferentfunctionalareastoworkonprojectsbutwhoreturntotheirareaswhenprojectiscompleted.Projectisastructureinwhichemployeescontinuouslyworkonprojects.Asoneprojectiscompleted,employeesmoveontothenextproject.Advantages:Fluidandflexibledesignthatcanrespondtoenvironmentalchanges.Fasterdecisionmaking.Disadvantages:Complexityofassigningpeopletoprojects.Taskandpersonalityconflicts.BoundarylessorganizationBoundarylessorganizationisastructurethatnotdefinedbyorlimitedtothehorizontal,vertical,orexternalboundaries.Advantages:Highflexibleandresponsive.Utilizestalentwhereverit’sfound.Disadvantages:Lackofcontrol.Communicationdifficulties.Twotypes—virtualandnetworkAvirtualorganizationconsistsofasmallcoreoffull-timeemployeesandoutsidespecialiststemporarilyhiredasneededtoworkonprojects.Anetworkorganizationusesitsownemployeestodosomeworkactivitiesandusesnetworksofoutsidesupplierstoprovideotherproductcomponentsorworkprocesses.Threeorganizationaldesignchallengestoday.Keepingemployeesconnected.Buildingalearningorganization.Aleaningorganizationisonethathasdevelopedthecapacitytocontinuouslylearn,adapt,andchange.Managingglobalstructureissues.Chapter11managersandcommunicationDefinecommunication,interpersonalcommunication,andorganizationalcommunication.Communicationisthetransferandunderstandingofmeaning.Interpersonalcommunicationiscommunicationbetweentwoormorepeople.Organizationalcommunicationisallthepatterns,networks,andsystemsofcommunicationwithinanorganization.Thefunctionsofcommunication:(control,motivate,emotionalexpression,information)Controllingemployeebehavior.Motivatingemployees.Providingareleaseforemotionalexpressionoffeelingsandfulfillmentsocialneeds.Providinginformation.CommunicationprocessTherearesevenelementsinthecommunicationprocess.(sender,message,encoding,channel,decoding,receiver)First,thereisasenderwhohasamessage.Amessageisapurposetobeconveyed.Encodingisconvertingamessageintosymbols.Achannelisthemediumamessagetravelsalong.Decodingiswhenthereceivertranslatesasender’smessage.Finally,there’sfeedback.Thecriteriatoevaluatevariouscommunicationmethods:Feedback,complexitycapacity,breadthpotential,confidentiality,encodingease,decodingease,time-spaceconstraint,cost,interpersonalwarmth,formality,scannability,timeofconsumption.Listthecommunicationmethods.Communicationmethodsincludeface-to-facecommunication,telephonecommunication,groupmeetings,formalpresentation,memos,faxes,traditionalmail,e-mail,voicemail,employeepublications,bulletinboards,othercompanypublications,audio-andvideotapes,hotlines,computerconferences,teleconferences,andvideoconferences.Nonverbalcommunicationiscommunicationtransmittedwithoutwords.Thebest-knowntypesarebodylanguageandverbalintonationThebarrierstoeffectiveinterpersonalcommunication:Barriers:FilteringEmotionsInformationoverloadDefensivenessLanguageNationalcultureWaystoovercome:UsingfeedbackSimplifyinglanguageListeningactivelyConstrainingemotionsWatchingfornonverbalcluesContrastformalandinformalcommunicationFormalcommunicationreferstocommunicationthattakesplacewithinprescribedorganizationalworkarrangements.Informalcommunicationisnotdefinedbyanorganization’sstructurehierarchy.Directionofcommunicationflow:downward,upward,lateral,diagonal.(Diagonalcommunicationiscommunicationthatcrossesbothworkareasandorganizationallevels.)Threetypesofcommunicationnetworks:Inachainnetwork,communicationflowsaccordingtothechainofcommand,bothdownwardandupward.Inawheelnetwork,communicationflowsbetweenaclearidentifiableandstrongleaderandothersinaworkteam.Inanall-channelnetwork,communicationflowsfreelyamongallmembersinaworkteam.Discusshowmanagersshouldhandlethegrapevine.Managersshouldmanagethegrapevineasanimportantinformationnetwork.Theycanminimizethenegativeconsequencesofrumorsbycommunicatingwithemployeesmoreopenly,fully,andhonestly.Howtechnologyaffectsmanagerialcommunication.Technologyhasradicallychangedthewayorganizationalmemberscommunicate.Ithassignificantlyimprovedamanager’sabilitytomonitorperformance.Ithasallowedemployeestohavemorecompleteinformationtomakefasterdecisions.Ithasprovidedemployeesmoreopportunitiestocollaborateandshareinformation.Ithasmadeitpossibleforpeopletobefullyaccessible,anytime,anywhere.Howinformationtechnologyaffectsorganization.ITaffectsorganizationsbyaffectingthewaythatorganizationalmemberscommunicate,shareinformation,anddotheirwork.Communicationissuesintoday’sorganizations.Thetwomainchallengesofmanagingcommunicationinaninternetworldare(1)legalandsecurityissuesand(2)lackofpersonalinteraction.Organizationcanmanageknowledgebymakingiteasierforemployeestocommunicateandsharetheirknowledgesothattheycanlearnfromeachotherwaystodotheirworkmoreeffectivelyandefficiently.Onewayisbuildingonlineinformationdatabasesthatemployeescanaccess.Anotherwayiscreatingcommunitiesofpractice.Communicatingwithcustomersisanimportantmanagerialissuebecausewhatcommunicationtakesplaceandhowittakesplacecansignificantlyaffectacustomer’ssatisfactionwiththeserviceandthelikelihoodofbeingarepeatcustomer.Politicalcorrectnessaffectscommunicationsinthatitsometime