CSET：人工智能生成代碼的網(wǎng)絡(luò)安全風(fēng)險（英文）

ExecutiveSummary

Recentdevelopmentshaveimprovedtheabilityoflargelanguagemodels(LLMs)andotherAIsystemstogeneratecomputercode.Whilethisispromisingforthefieldof

softwaredevelopment,thesemodelscanalsoposedirectandindirectcybersecurity

risks.Inthispaper,weidentifythreebroadcategoriesofriskassociatedwithAIcodegenerationmodels:1)modelsgeneratinginsecurecode,2)modelsthemselvesbeingvulnerabletoattackandmanipulation,and3)downstreamcybersecurityimpactssuchasfeedbackloopsintrainingfutureAIsystems.

Existingresearchhasshownthat,underexperimentalconditions,AIcodegenerationmodelsfrequentlyoutputinsecurecode.However,theprocessofevaluatingthe

securityofAI-generatedcodeishighlycomplexandcontainsmanyinterdependentvariables.TofurtherexploretheriskofinsecureAI-writtencode,weevaluated

generatedcodefromfiveLLMs.Eachmodelwasgiventhesamesetofprompts,whichweredesignedtotestlikelyscenarioswherebuggyorinsecurecodemightbe

produced.Ourevaluationresultsshowthatalmosthalfofthecodesnippetsproducedbythesefivedifferentmodelscontainbugsthatareoftenimpactfulandcould

potentiallyleadtomaliciousexploitation.Theseresultsarelimitedtothenarrowscopeofourevaluation,butwehopetheycancontributetothelargerbodyofresearch

surroundingtheimpactsofAIcodegenerationmodels.

Givenbothcodegenerationmodels’currentutilityandthelikelihoodthattheircapabilitieswillcontinuetoimprove,itisimportanttomanagetheirpolicyandcybersecurityimplications.Keyfindingsincludethebelow.

●IndustryadoptionofAIcodegenerationmodelsmayposeriskstosoftware

supplychainsecurity.However,theseriskswillnotbeevenlydistributedacrossorganizations.Larger,morewell-resourcedorganizationswillhaveanadvantageoverorganizationsthatfacecostandworkforceconstraints.

●Multiplestakeholdershaverolestoplayinhelpingtomitigatepotentialsecurity

risksrelatedtoAI-generatedcode.TheburdenofensuringthatAI-generated

codeoutputsaresecureshouldnotrestsolelyonindividualusers,butalsoonAIdevelopers,organizationsproducingcodeatscale,andthosewhocanimprove

securityatlarge,suchaspolicymakingbodiesorindustryleaders.Existing

guidancesuchassecuresoftwaredevelopmentpracticesandtheNIST

CybersecurityFrameworkremainsessentialtoensurethatallcode,regardlessofauthorship,isevaluatedforsecuritybeforeitentersproduction.Other

cybersecurityguidance,suchassecure-by-designprinciples,canbeexpandedto

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includecodegenerationmodelsandotherAIsystemsthatimpactsoftwaresupplychainsecurity.

●Codegenerationmodelsalsoneedtobeevaluatedforsecurity,butitiscurrentlydifficulttodoso.Evaluationbenchmarksforcodegenerationmodelsoftenfocusonthemodels’abilitytoproducefunctionalcodebutdonotassesstheirabilitytogeneratesecurecode,whichmayincentivizeadeprioritizationofsecurityover

functionalityduringmodeltraining.Thereisinadequatetransparencyaround

models’trainingdata—orunderstandingoftheirinternalworkings—toexplorequestionssuchaswhetherbetterperformingmodelsproducemoreinsecure

code.

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TableofContents

ExecutiveSummary 1

Introduction 4

Background 5

WhatAreCodeGenerationModels? 5

IncreasingIndustryAdoptionofAICodeGenerationTools 7

RisksAssociatedwithAICodeGeneration 9

CodeGenerationModelsProduceInsecureCode 9

Models’VulnerabilitytoAttack 11

DownstreamImpacts 13

ChallengesinAssessingtheSecurityofCodeGenerationModels 15

IsAIGeneratedCodeInsecure? 18

Methodology 18

EvaluationResults 22

UnsuccessfulVerificationRates 22

VariationAcrossModels 24

SeverityofGeneratedBugs 25

Limitations 26

PolicyImplicationsandFurtherResearch 28

Conclusion 32

Authors 33

Acknowledgments 33

AppendixA:Methodology 34

AppendixB:EvaluationResults 34

Endnotes 35

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Introduction

AdvancementsinartificialintelligencehaveresultedinaleapintheabilityofAI

systemstogeneratefunctionalcomputercode.Whileimprovementsinlargelanguage

modelshavedrivenagreatdealofrecentinterestandinvestmentinAI,codegenerationhasbeenaviableusecaseforAIsystemsforthelastseveralyears.

SpecializedAIcodingmodels,suchascodeinfillingmodelswhichfunctionsimilarlyto“autocompleteforcode,”and“general-purpose”LLM-basedfoundationmodelsare

bothbeingusedtogeneratecodetoday.Anincreasingnumberofapplicationsand

softwaredevelopmenttoolshaveincorporatedthesemodelstobeofferedasproductseasilyaccessiblebyabroadaudience.

Thesemodelsandassociatedtoolsarebeingadoptedrapidlybythesoftware

developercommunityandindividualusers.AccordingtoGitHub’sJune2023survey,92%ofsurveyedU.S.-baseddevelopersreportusingAIcodingtoolsinandoutof

work.1AnotherindustrysurveyfromNovember2023similarlyreportedahighusagerate,with96%ofsurveyeddevelopersusingAIcodingtoolsandmorethanhalfof

respondentsusingthetoolsmostofthetime.2Ifthistrendcontinues,LLM-generatedcodewillbecomeanintegralpartofthesoftwaresupplychain.

ThepolicychallengeregardingAIcodegenerationisthatthistechnological

advancementpresentstangiblebenefitsbutalsopotentialsystemicrisksforthe

cybersecurityecosystem.Ontheonehand,thesemodelscouldsignificantlyincreaseworkforceproductivityandpositivelycontributetocybersecurityifappliedinareas

suchasvulnerabilitydiscoveryandpatching.Ontheotherhand,researchhasshownthatthesemodelsalsogenerateinsecurecode,posingdirectcybersecurityrisksif

incorporatedwithoutproperreview,aswellasindirectrisksasinsecurecodeendsupinopen-sourcerepositoriesthatfeedintosubsequentmodels.

Asdevelopersincreasinglyadoptthesetools,stakeholdersateverylevelofthe

softwaresupplychainshouldconsidertheimplicationsofwidespreadAI-generated

code.AIresearchersanddeveloperscanevaluatemodeloutputswithsecurityinmind,programmersandsoftwarecompaniescanconsiderhowthesetoolsfitintoexisting

security-orientedprocesses,andpolicymakershavetheopportunitytoaddressbroadercybersecurityrisksassociatedwithAI-generatedcodebysettingappropriate

guidelines,providingincentives,andempoweringfurtherresearch.ThisreportprovidesanoverviewofthepotentialcybersecurityrisksassociatedwithAI-generatedcodeanddiscussesremainingresearchchallengesforthecommunityandimplicationsforpolicy.

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Background

WhatAreCodeGenerationModels?

CodegenerationmodelsareAImodelscapableofgeneratingcomputercodein

responsetocodeornatural-languageprompts.Forexample,ausermightprompta

modelwith“WritemeafunctioninJavathatsortsalistofnumbers”andthemodelwilloutputsomecombinationofcodeandnaturallanguageinresponse.Thiscategoryof

modelsincludesbothlanguagemodelsthathavebeenspecializedforcodegenerationaswellasgeneral-purposelanguagemodels—alsoknownas“foundationmodels”—

thatarecapableofgeneratingothertypesofoutputsandarenotexplicitlydesignedto

outputcode.ExamplesofspecializedmodelsincludeAmazonCodeWhisperer,

DeepSeekCoder,WizardCoder,andCodeLlama,whilegeneral-purposemodelsincludeOpenAI’sGPTseries,Mistral,Gemini,andClaude.

Earlieriterationsofcodegenerationmodels—manyofwhichpredatedthecurrent

generationofLLMsandarestillinwidespreaduse—functionedsimilarlyto

“autocompleteforcode,”inwhichamodelsuggestsacodesnippettocompletealine

asausertypes.These“autocomplete”models,whichperformwhatisknownascode

infilling,aretrainedspecificallyforthistaskandhavebeenwidelyadoptedinsoftwaredevelopmentpipelines.Morerecentimprovementsinlanguagemodelcapabilitieshaveallowedformoreinteractivity,suchasnatural-languagepromptingorauserinputtingacodesnippetandaskingthemodeltocheckitforerrors.Likegeneral-purposelanguagemodels,userscommonlyinteractwithcodegenerationmodelsviaadedicatedinterfacesuchasachatwindoworaplugininanotherpieceofsoftware.Recently,specialized

scaffoldingsoftwarehasfurtherincreasedwhatAImodelsarecapableofincertaincontexts.Forinstance,somemodelsthatcanoutputcodemayalsobecapableof

executingthatcodeanddisplayingtheoutputstotheuser.3

Aslanguagemodelshavegottenlargerandmoreadvancedoverthepastfewyears,

theircodegenerationcapabilitieshaveimprovedinstepwiththeirnaturallanguage-

generationcapabilities.4Codinglanguagesare,afterall,intentionallydesignedto

encodeandconveyinformation,andhavetheirownrulesandsyntacticalexpectationsmuchlikehumanlanguages.Researchersinthefieldofnaturallanguageprocessing

(NLP)havebeeninterestedintranslatingbetweennaturallanguageandcomputercode

formanyyears,butthesimultaneousintroductionoftransformer-basedlanguage

modelarchitecturesandlargedatasetscontainingcodeledtoarapidimprovementincodegenerationcapabilitiesbeginningaround2018–2019.Asnewmodelswere

released,researchersalsobeganexploringwaystomakethemmoreaccessible.Inmid-2021,forexample,OpenAIreleasedthefirstversionofCodex,aspecializedlanguage

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modelforcodegeneration,alongwiththeHumanEvalbenchmarkforassessingthe

correctnessofAIcodeoutputs.5Github,inpartnershipwithOpenAI,thenlauncheda

previewofaCodex-poweredAIpairprogrammingtoolcalledGithubCopilot.6Althoughitinitiallyfunctionedmoresimilarlyto“autocompleteforcode”thanacurrent-

generationLLMchatbot,GithubCopilot’srelativeaccessibilityandearlysuccesshelped

spurinterestincodegenerationtoolsamongprogrammers,manyofwhomwereinterestedinadoptingAItoolsforbothworkandpersonaluse.

Tobecomeproficientatcodegeneration,modelsneedtobetrainedondatasets

containinglargeamountsofhuman-writtencode.Modernmodelsareprimarilytrainedonpublicly-available,open-sourcecode.7Muchofthiscodewasscrapedfromopen-

sourcewebrepositoriessuchasGithub,whereindividualsandcompaniescanstore

andcollaborateoncodingprojects.Forexample,thefirstversionofthe6-terabyte

datasetknownasTheStackconsistsofsourcecodefilesin358differentprogramminglanguages,andhasbeenusedtopretrainseveralopencodegenerationmodels.8Otherlanguagemodeltrainingdatasetsareknowntocontaincodeinadditiontonatural-

languagetext.The825-gigabytedatasetcalledThePilecontains95gigabytesofGithubdataand32gigabytesscrapedfromStackExchange,afamilyofquestion-answeringforumsthatincludescodesnippetsandothercontentrelatedto

programming.9However,thereisoftenlimitedvisibilityintothedatasetsthat

developersusefortrainingmodels.Wecanspeculatethatthemajorityofcodebeing

usedtotraincodegenerationmodelshasbeenscrapedfromopen-sourcerepositories,butotherdatasetsusedfortrainingmaycontainproprietarycodeorsimplybeexcludedfrommodelcardsorotherformsofdocumentation.

Additionally,somespecializedmodelsarefine-tunedversionsofgeneral-purpose

models.Usually,theyarecreatedbytraininggeneral-purposemodelswithadditional

dataspecifictotheusecase.Thisisparticularlylikelyininstanceswherethemodel

needstotranslatenatural-languageinputsintocode,asgeneral-purposemodelstendtobebetteratfollowingandinterpretinguserinstructions.OpenAI’sCodexisonesuchexample,asitwascreatedbyfine-tuningaversionofthegeneral-purposeGPT-3

modelon159gigabytesofPythoncodescrapedfromGithub.10CodeLlamaandCodeLlamaPython—basedonMeta’sLlama2model—areotherexamplesofsuchmodels.

ResearchinterestinAIcodegenerationhasconsistentlyincreasedinthepastdecade,especiallyexperiencingasurgeinthepastyearfollowingthereleaseofhigh-

performingfoundationmodelssuchasGPT-4andopen-sourcemodelssuchasLlama2.Figure1illustratesthetrendbycountingthenumberofresearchpapersoncode

generationbyyearfrom2012–2023.Thenumberofresearchpapersoncode

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generationmorethandoubledfrom2022to2023,demonstratingagrowingresearchinterestinitsusage,evaluation,andimplications.

Figure1:NumberofPapersonCodeGenerationbyYear*

Source:CSET’sMergedAcademicCorpus.

IncreasingIndustryAdoptionofAICodeGenerationTools

Codegenerationpresentsoneofthemostcompellingandwidelyadoptedusecasesforlargelanguagemodels.InadditiontoclaimsfromorganizationssuchasMicrosoftthattheirAIcodingtoolGitHubCopilothad1.8millionpaidsubscribersasofspring2024,

upfrommorethanamillioninmid-2023,11softwarecompaniesarealsoadopting

*ThisgraphcountsthenumberofpapersinCSET’sMergedAcademicCorpusthatcontainthe

keywords“codegeneration,”“AI-assistedprogramming,”“AIcodeassistant,”“codegenerating

LLM,”or“codeLLM”andarealsoclassifiedasAI-orcybersecurity-relatedusingCSET’sAIclassifierandcybersecurityclassifier.NotethatatthetimeofwritinginFebruary2024,CSET’sMerged

AcademicCorpusdidnotyetincludeallpapersfrom2023duetoupstreamcollectionlags,which

mayhaveresultedinanundercountingofpapersin2023.ThecorpuscurrentlyincludesdatafromClarivate’sWebofScience,TheLens,arXiv,PaperswithCode,SemanticScholar,andOpenAlex.

MoreinformationregardingourmethodologyforcompilingtheMergedAcademicCorpusaswellasbackgroundonourclassifiersandadetailedcitationofdatasourcesareavailablehere:

https://eto.tech/dataset-docs/mac/

;

/publication/identifying-ai-research/.

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internalversionsofthesemodelsthathavebeentrainedonproprietarycodeand

customizedforemployeeuse.GoogleandMetahavecreatednon-public,customcodegenerationmodelsintendedtohelptheiremployeesdevelopnewproductsmore

efficiently.12

ProductivityisoftencitedasoneofthekeyreasonsindividualsandorganizationshaveadoptedAIcodegenerationtools.Metricsformeasuringhowmuchdeveloper

productivityimprovesbyleveragingAIcodegenerationtoolsvarybystudy.Asmall

GitHubstudyusedbothself-perceivedproductivityandtaskcompletiontimeas

productivitymetrics,buttheauthorsacknowledgedthatthereislittleconsensusaboutwhatmetricstouseorhowproductivityrelatestodeveloperwell-being.13AMcKinseystudyusingsimilarmetricsclaimedthatsoftwaredevelopersusinggenerativeAItoolscouldcompletecodingtasksuptotwiceasfastasthosewithoutthem,butthatthesebenefitsvarieddependingontaskcomplexityanddeveloperexperience.14Companieshavealsoruninternalproductivitystudieswiththeiremployees.AMetastudyontheirinternalcodegenerationmodelCodeComposeusedmetricssuchascodeacceptancerateandqualitativedeveloperfeedbacktomeasureproductivity,findingthat20%of

usersstatedthatCodeComposehelpedthemwritecodemorequickly,whileaGooglestudyfounda6%reductionincodingiterationtimewhenusinganinternalcode

completionmodelascomparedtoacontrolgroup.15Morerecently,aSeptember2024studyanalyzingdatafromrandomizedcontroltrialsacrossthreedifferentorganizationsfounda26%increaseinthenumberofcompletedtasksamongdevelopersusing

GitHubCopilotasopposedtodeveloperswhowerenotgivenaccesstothetool.16Moststudiesareinagreementthatcodegenerationtoolsimprovedeveloperproductivityin

general,regardlessoftheexactmetricsused.

AIcodegenerationtoolsareundoubtedlyhelpfultosomeprogrammers,especially

thosewhoseworkinvolvesfairlyroutinecodingtasks.(Generally,themorecommonacodingtaskorcodinglanguage,thebetteracodegenerationmodelcanbeexpectedtoperformbecauseitismorelikelytohavebeentrainedonsimilarexamples.)Automatingrotecodingtasksmayfreeupemployees’timeformorecreativeorcognitively

demandingwork.TheamountofsoftwarecodegeneratedbyAIsystemsisexpectedtoincreaseinthenear-tomedium-termfuture,especiallyasthecodingcapabilitiesof

today’smostaccessiblemodelscontinuetoimprove.

Broadlyspeaking,evidencesuggeststhatcodegenerationtoolshavebenefitsatboththeindividualandorganizationallevels,andthesebenefitsarelikelytoincreaseover

timeasmodelcapabilitiesimprove.Therearealsoplentyofincentives,suchaseaseof

accessandpurportedproductivitygains,fororganizationstoadopt—oratleastexperimentwith—AIcodegenerationforsoftwaredevelopment.

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RisksAssociatedwithAICodeGeneration

Thistechnologicalbreakthrough,however,mustalsobemetwithcaution.Increasing

usageofcodegenerationmodelsinroutinesoftwaredevelopmentprocessesmeans

thatthesemodelswillsoonbeanimportantpartofthesoftwaresupplychain.Ensuringthattheiroutputsaresecure—orthatanyinsecureoutputstheyproduceareidentifiedandcorrectedbeforecodeentersproduction—willalsobeincreasinglyimportantfor

cybersecurity.However,codegenerationmodelsareseldomtrainedwithsecurityasabenchmarkandareinsteadoftentrainedtomeetvariousfunctionalitybenchmarkssuchasHumanEval,asetof164human-writtenprogrammingproblemsintendedto

evaluatemodels’code-writingcapabilityinthePythonprogramminglanguage.17Asthe

functionalityofthesecodegenerationmodelsincreasesandmodelsareadoptedintothestandardroutineoforganizationsanddevelopers,overlookingthepotential

vulnerabilitiesofsuchcodemayposesystemiccybersecurityrisks.

Theremainderofthissectionwillexaminethreepotentialsourcesofriskingreater

detail:1)codegenerationmodels’likelihoodofproducinginsecurecode,2)themodels’vulnerabilitytoattacks,and3)potentialdownstreamcybersecurityimplicationsrelatedtothewidespreaduseofcodegenerationmodels.

CodeGenerationModelsProduceInsecureCode

Anemergingbodyofresearchonthesecurityofcodegenerationmodelsfocusesonhowtheymightproduceinsecurecode.Thesevulnerabilitiesmaybecontainedwithinthecodeitselforinvolvecodethatcallsapotentiallyvulnerableexternalresource.

Human-computerinteractionfurthercomplicatesthisproblem,as1)usersmay

perceiveAI-generatedcodeasmoresecureormoretrustworthythanhuman-

generatedcode,and2)researchersmaybeunabletopinpointexactlyhowtostopmodelsfromgeneratinginsecurecode.Thissectionexploresthesevarioustopicsinmoredetail.

Firstly,variouscodegenerationmodelsoftensuggestinsecurecodeasoutputs.Pearceetal.(2021)showthatapproximately40%ofthe1,689programsgeneratedbyGithubCopilot18werevulnerabletoMITRE’s“2021CommonWeaknessEnumerations(CWE)Top25MostDangerousSoftwareWeaknesses”list.19SiddiqandSantos(2022)foundthatoutof130codesamplesgeneratedusingInCoderandGithubCopilot,68%and

73%ofthecodesamplesrespectivelycontainedvulnerabilitieswhenchecked

manually.20Khouryetal.(2023)usedChatGPTtogenerate21programsinfive

differentprogramminglanguagesandtestedforCWEs,showingthatonlyfiveoutof21wereinitiallysecure.Onlyafterspecificpromptingtocorrectthecodedidan

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additionalsevencasesgeneratesecurecode.21Fuetal.(2024)showthatoutof452real-worldcasesofcodesnippetsgeneratedbyGithubCopilotfrompubliclyavailableprojects,32.8%ofPythonand24.5%ofJavaScriptsnippetscontained38different

CWEs,eightofwhichbelongtothe2023CWETop25list.22

Incertaincodinglanguages,codegenerationmodelsarealsolikelytoproducecodethatcallsexternallibrariesandpackages.Theseexternalcodesourcescanpresenta

hostofproblems,somesecurity-relevant:Theymaybenonexistentandmerely

hallucinatedbythemodel,outdatedandunpatchedforvulnerabilities,ormaliciousin

nature(suchaswhenattackersattempttotakeadvantageofcommonmisspellingsinURLsorpackagenames).23Forexample,VulcanCybershowedthatChatGPTroutinelyrecommendednonexistentpackageswhenansweringcommoncodingquestions

sourcedfromStackOverflow—over40outof201questionsinNode.jsandover80outof227questionsinPythoncontainedatleastonenonexistentpackageintheanswer.24Furthermore,someofthesehallucinatedlibraryandpackagenamesarepersistent

acrossbothusecasesanddifferentmodels;asafollow-upstudydemonstrated,a

potentialattackercouldeasilycreateapackagewiththesamenameandgetuserstounknowinglydownloadmaliciouscode.25

Despitetheseempiricalresults,thereareearlyindicationsthatusersperceiveAI-

generatedcodetobemoresecurethanhuman-writtencode.This“automationbias”

towardsAI-generatedcodemeansthatusersmayoverlookcarefulcodereviewand

acceptinsecurecodeasitis.Forinstance,ina2023industrysurveyof537technologyandITworkersandmanagers,76%respondedthatAIcodeismoresecurethanhumancode.26Perryetal.(2023)furthershowedinauserstudythatstudentparticipantswithaccesstoanAIassistantwrotesignificantlylesssecurecodethanthosewithout

access,andweremorelikelytobelievethattheywrotesecurecode.27However,thereissomedisagreementonwhetherornotusersofAIcodegenerationtoolsaremorelikelytowriteinsecurecode;otherstudiessuggestthatuserswithaccesstoAIcode

assistantsmaynotbesignificantlymorelikelytoproduceinsecurecodethanusers

withoutAItools.28Thesecontradictoryfindingsraiseaseriesofrelatedquestions,suchas:Howdoesauser’sproficiencywithcodingaffecttheiruseofcodegeneration

models,andtheirlikelihoodofacceptingAI-generatedcodeassecure?Could

automationbiasleadhumanprogrammerstoaccept(potentiallyinsecure)AI-generatedcodeassecuremoreoftenthanhuman-authoredcode?Regardless,thefactthatAI

codingtoolsmayprovideinexperienceduserswithafalsesenseofsecurityhas

cybersecurityimplicationsifAI-generatedcodeismoretrustedandlessscrutinizedforsecurityflaws.

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Furthermore,thereremainsuncertaintyaroundwhycodegenerationmodelsproduceinsecurecodeinthefirstplace,andwhatcausesvariationinthesecurityofcode

outputsacrossandwithinmodels.Partoftheanswerliesinthatmanyofthesemodelsaretrainedoncodefromopen-sourcerepositoriessuchasGithub.Theserepositories

containhuman-authoredcodewithknownvulnerabilities,largelydonotenforcesecure

codingpractices,andlackdatasanitizationprocessesforremovingcodewitha

significantnumberofknownvulnerabilities.Recentworkhasshownthatsecurity

vulnerabilitiesinthetrainingdatacanleakintooutputsoftransformer-basedmodels,

whichdemonstratesthatvulnerabilitiesintheunderlyingtrainingdatacontributetotheproblemofinsecurecodegeneration.29Addingtothechallenge,thereisoftenlittleto

notransparencyinexactlywhatcodewasincludedintrainingdatasetsandwhetherornotanyattemptsweremadetoimproveitssecurity.

Manyotheraspectsofthequestionofhow—andwhy—codegenerationmodelsproduceinsecurecodearestillunanswered.Forexample,a2023Metastudythat

comparedseveralversionsofLlama2,CodeLlama,andGPT-3.5and4foundthat

modelswithmoreadvancedcodingcapabilitiesweremorelikelytooutputinsecure

code.30Thissuggestsapossibleinverserelationshipbetweenfunctionalityandsecurityincodegenerationmodelsandshouldbeinvestigatedfurther.Inanotherexample,

researchersconductedacomparativestudyoffourmodels–GPT-3.5,GPT-4,Bard,

andGemini–andfoundthatpromptingmodelstoadopta“securitypersona”eliciteddivergentresults.31WhileGPT-3.5,GPT-4,andBardsawareductioninthenumberofvulnerabilitiesfromthenormalpersona,Gemini’scodeoutputcontainedmore

vulnerabilities.32Theseearlystudieshighlightsomeoftheknowledgegapsconcerning

howinsecurecodeoutputsaregeneratedandhowtheychangeinresponsetovariablessuchasmodelsizeandpromptengineering.

Models’VulnerabilitytoAttack

Inadditiontothecodethattheyoutput,codegenerationmodelsaresoftwaretoolsthatneedtobeproperlysecured.AImodelsarevulnerabletohacking,tampering,or

manipulationinwaysthathumansarenot.33Figure2illustratesthecodegenerationmodeldevelopmentworkflow,wheretheportionsinredindicatevariouswaysa

maliciouscyberactormayattackamodel.

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Figure2:CodeGenerationModelDevelopmentWorkflowandItsCybersecurityImplications

Source:CSET.

GenerativeAIsystemshaveknownvulnerabilitiestoseveraltypesofadversarial

attacks.Theseincludedatapoisoningattacks,inwhichanattackercontaminatesamodel’strainingdatatoelicitadesiredbehavior,andbackdoorattacks,inwhichan

attackerattemptstoproduceaspecificoutputbypromptingthemodelwitha

predeterminedtriggerphrase.Inthecodegenerationcontext,adatapoisoningattack

maylooklikeanattackermanipulatingamodel’strainingdatatoincreaseitslikelihoodofproducingcodethatimportsamaliciouspackageorlibrary.Abackdoorattackonthemodelitself,meanwhile,coulddramaticallychangeamodel’sbehaviorwithasingle

triggerthatmaypersistevenifdeveloperstrytoremoveit.34Thischangedbehaviorcanresultinanoutputthatviolatesrestrictionsplacedonthemodelbyitsdevelopers(suchas“don’tsuggestcodepatternsassociatedwithmalware”)orthatmayreveal

unwantedorsensitiveinformation.Researchershavepointedoutthatbecausecodegenerationmodelsaretrainedonlargeamountsofdatafromafinitenumberof

unsanitizedcoderepositories,attackerscouldeasilyseedthese