CXC83預(yù)防或減少雪卡毒素中毒的實(shí)施規(guī)范

CODEOFPRACTICEFORTHEPREVENTIONORREDUCTIONOFCIGUATERAPOISONINGCXC83-2024

Adoptedin2024

CXC83-20242

1.INTRODUCTION

Ciguatoxins(CTXs)areaclassoftoxinsproducedbymarinedinoflagellates(motileunicellularalgae).ThesetoxinsenterthemarinefoodwebwhenCTX-containingdinoflagellates/algaeareconsumedbyherbivorousfishorshellfish,includingsomeechinoderms.CTXscanbioaccumulateintheseandhighertrophiclevelmarineorganisms.Ciguaterapoisoning(CP)isanillnessresultingfromconsumptionofmarineorganismscontainingtoxiclevelsofCTXs.Sub-chronicexposuretociguatoxicfishorshellfishcanalsoleadtotoxiceffects.CPhasbecomeaglobalhealthconcernandisincreasinginprevalenceduetofactorsthatlikelyincludeclimatechange.CoastalcommunitiesthatrelyonlocalfishingasafoodsupplyandasasourceofincomeareparticularlyatriskfromincreasingoccurrencesofCP.In2018,FAOandWHOconvenedajointexpertmeetingtoperformanevaluationofCTXandprovideguidancefordevelopmentofriskmanagement

option.1

ThebenthicdinoflagellategenusGambierdiscusisthemainknownproducerofCTXs,andsomespeciesofFukuyoamayalsoproduceCTX-liketoxins.Thesedinoflagellatestendtogrowintropicalandsubtropicalmarineenvironmentsandaretypicallyassociatedwithcoralreefs.GambierdiscusandFukuyoaareknowntoattachtovarioussubstrates(e.g.turfalgae,macroalgae,andcoral,althoughtheycanalsobedetectedinthewatercolumn).Recentreportshaveidentifiedtheseorganismsinmoretemperateregionsaswell,includingtheRepublicofKorea,Japan,northernterritoriesofNewZealand,southernAustralia,thenorthernGulfofMexico,andtheMediterraneanSea.CTXswereinitiallycategorizedasbelongingtooneofthreemajorclassesthatcorrespondedwiththeirgloballocation(PacificP-CTXs,CaribbeanC-CTXsandIndianOceanI-CTXs);however,expertsnowrecommendthattoxinsbecategorizedintofourclasses,derivativesofCTX4A,CTX3C,C-CTX,andI-CTX,accordingtotheirchemicalstructure(I-CTXstructureshavenotbeenfullydetermined).CTXsarelipophilic,donotdegradeunderheatormildpHchanges,andareknowntoberesistanttodegradationbycooking,freezing,orcanningprocesses.Theymayundergostructuraltransformationsastheyaremetabolizedbymarineorganisms,oftenincreasingintoxicityastheydoso.Morethan30uniqueanaloguesofCTXshavebeenreportedandmanymorehaveyettobefullycharacterized.

TheimpactofCTXstohumansisprimarilythroughtheconsumptionofwild-caughtherbivorousfishorpredatoryfishorshellfishthathaveaccumulatedCTXs.Theriskofintoxicationfromaquaculturedfishisconsideredtobelow.ThedietoftheindividualmarineorganismistheprimarycontributingfactorforCTXaccumulation;however,thesizeandageofmarineorganismsarebelievedtoinfluenceCTXaccumulationaswell.CTXsarelipophilicandmaybepresentintissuessuchasmeat(flesh),head,liver,viscera,androe(eggs).TheFAO/WHOReportoftheExpertMeetingonCiguateraPoisoning1referencedmorethan425speciesoffishthathavebeenidentifiedashavingbeencontaminatedwithCTXs,includingexamplessuchasbarracuda,amberjack,grouper,snapper,andparrotfish.Manyofthesefishareterritorial,whichcanhelpidentifyvulnerablefishingareas,thoughterritoriescanoverlapandchangewithtime.CTXsdonotappeartobefataltofishandtherearenooutwardsignsthatawild-caughtfishiscontaminatedwithCTXs,suchaschangeinbehaviour,taste,odour,ortexture;meaningthattoxinanalysisisrequiredtoconfirmCTXpresenceandconcentration.

HumanscanexperienceCPwhentheyconsumefishorothermarineorganismscontaminatedwithCTXs.Generally,thesignsandsymptomsofCPareacuteandcanappearwithinseveralhoursofconsumingcontaminatedfoodorupto48hoursafterconsumption.CPsymptomsincludegastrointestinalissues(e.g.vomiting,diarrhoea),neurologicalissues(e.g.paraesthesia,headaches),cardiovascularissues(e.g.hypotension,bradycardia),andsomesymptomsthatareespeciallycharacteristicofCP,suchascoldallodyniaanddysesthesia.CPisrarelyfatal,butexposuretoCTXsmayproveextremelydebilitatingandcanexacerbatetheimpactofpre-existingcardiovascularorneurologicalconditions.ThereisnospecifictreatmentforCP,butsomesymptomscanbemanagediftheillnesshasbeencorrectlydiagnosed.

ReportsofCPhavebeenmadesincethe1500s.Atpresent,CPisbelievedtobethemostcommontypeofmarinebiotoxin-relatedfoodpoisoningworldwide.TheglobalprevalenceofCPisestimatedtobe10000to500000casesperyear.Ingeneral,CPprevalencemaybeunderestimatedduetoalackofmandatoryincidencereporting,misidentificationofCPsymptoms,limitedcollectionofepidemiologicaldataonagloballevel,andotherreasons.Ifcliniciansdonotknowthecharacteristicsymptoms,theymaymisdiagnoseCP,leadingtounderreportingofthedisease.

CXC83-20243

ConsumingCTX-contaminatedfishwasoncegeographicallylimitedtolocalresidentsandvisitorstotropicalandsubtropicalregionswithsuitablecoralreefhabitats,butglobaltradeoffishandtheimpactsofclimatechange,includinganincreaseinoceantemperature,prevalenceofcyclones,andchangesincurrents,havecausedCPillnessestobeobservedamongawiderrangeofindividualsandreportedinnon-CTXendemiccountriesintemperateregions.AnaloguesofCTXsthatwereformerlyfoundtobeendemictospecificregionscannowbefoundinotherareasoftheworld.SomeregionshavebeenmonitoringCPcasesformanyyears,developingexpertiseinanalysisandareamanagement,andsomeareexperiencinganincreaseinCPasanemergingissueandmustlearnhowtodevelopmonitoringprograms,inspectionprotocols,andregulationstoprotectthepublic.

SuccessfulsurveillanceandmonitoringofCTXsdependsontheavailabilityofaccurateepidemiologicaldataand/oranalyticalmethodsvalidatedaccordingtointernationalstandards/guidelines.Presently,formalvalidationofanalyticalmethodsforCTXsislimitedduetothelackofcertifiedstandardsandcertifiedoruncertifiedmatrixreferencematerials.TheanalyticalmethodscurrentlyavailablefordetectionofCTXsarediverseandtargetdifferentpropertiesofthetoxins(e.g.structure,cytotoxicity)andencompassbothscreeningandquantitativemeasurements.SomeanalyticalmethodscansimultaneouslyquantifyindividualCTXanalogues,whileothersaremoreselectiveintheanaloguesthatcanbedetected.However,therearenointernationallyagreedharmonizedprotocolstodetermineCTXs.MostCTXdetectionmethodsaresuitableforanalysingavarietyofmatrices(i.e.algaeorseafoodtissues)andsomehavesufficientsensitivitytodetectCTXsatthelevelsthatmaybeassociatedwithadversehealtheffectsinhumans.CTXanaloguesarebelievedtovarydependingonthespeciesoftoxin-producingalgae,aswellasthemetabolismofmarineorganisms.CTXscanbeextractedfromCTX-producingalgaeorcontaminatedmarineorganisms;alimitednumberofCTXanalogueshavebeensynthesized(e.g.CTX1B,CTX3C,and51-hydroxy-CTX3C).Thedinoflagellatesgrowslowlyinlaboratoryconditionsandcanbedifficulttomaintain;largequantitiesofciguatoxicfishmaterialarerequiredfortheisolationoftoxins,whichmeansproductionofCTXstandardsislimited.However,recentadvancementsinculturing,materialshandling,andchemicalcharacterizationhavesignificantlyimprovedthecapabilitiestomakereferencematerials.Toxinsfromculturedalgaeandfishwithvaryingmetaboliteprofilesareavailable.

Intheir2020report,FAO/WHOconcludedthat“effectiveandintegratedriskmanagementoptionswouldrequiredefinitionoftoxinprofilesineachregion,bothinalgalstrainsandinseafoodtodefineriskevaluationprotocols[…]conclusionsshouldbeconsideredasoflocalorregionalsignificanceonly[…]”SomeoftherecommendationsfromtheFAO/WHOreportareincludedinthe“RecommendedPractices”sectionsbelow.

2.SCOPE

ThisdocumentprovidesguidanceonrecommendedpracticestopreventorreduceCPfordifferenttypesofstakeholdersincludingcompetentauthorities,fishsectoroperators(fishers,seafoodprocessors,andseafoodretailworkers),healthcareprofessionals,andconsumers.BecauseofdifferencesinCTXs,analyticalmethodsandstandards,andregionalprevalencelevelsofCP,notallrecommendedpracticeswillbeapplicableinallsituationsortoallstakeholders.

3.DEFINITIONS

●Analogue:Acompoundthathasastructuresimilartoanothercompoundbutdiffersfromitincertaincomponents,suchasfunctionalgroupsorsubstructures.WhenreferringtoCTX,analogueshavesimilarbackbonestructuresbutdifferentfunctionalgroupsinspecificlocations.

●Ciguatoxic:ContainingtoxiclevelsofCTXs.

●CTX-contaminated:ContaininglevelsofCTXwhichmayormaynotbeconsideredtoxic.

●Fishsectoroperators:Peoplewhoworkintheareasoffishing,seafoodprocessing,andseafoodretail.

●Sentinelspecies:Anorganismusedtodetectexistingoremerginghealthhazardsfromtheenvironment.Sentinelspeciesaresensitiveindicatorsofachemicalcontaminantintheenvironmentduetotheirabilitytoconcentrateorintegrateexposureswithinafoodweborecosystem,andtheymayprovideearlyindicationofpotentialadversehealtheffectsandprovideinsightintotoxicmechanismsofagivenhazardousagent.

●Surrogate:asubstitutespeciesusedtoassessthequalityoftheenvironmentwhentestingthetargetspeciesisnotfeasible.Inthiscase,testingofsentinelfishorwatermaybepreferabletotestingfishforconsumptionwhendeterminingifanareashouldberestrictedtofishing.

CXC83-20244

4.RECOMMENDEDPRACTICES

4.1Government-sponsoredsurveillanceandmonitoringprograms

Asknowledgeimprovesandreliablemethodsbecomeavailable,competentauthoritiesshouldconsiderestablishingorstrengtheningprogramstomonitoroutbreaksandCTXsinalgae,sentinelfishspecies,andfishforconsumption.Overall,thefunctionofmonitoringprogramsistoprovideinformationthatmaybeusedtodevelopwarningsofthepotentialforCPproblemsandprovidefeedbacknoticestothefishingindustryorconsumerstowarnagainstfishingincertainareas.Itiscurrentlyimpractical(i.e.costlyandlabour-intensive)totestfishtoasufficientdegreeforthecompletepreventionofCP,butrecommendationsoutlinedbelowshouldhelptoreducetheprevalenceofCP.

Environmentalmonitoringmaybeundertakenwithatwo-tieredapproach:initialtestofGambierdiscusorFukuyoaalgaeorfishusingafunctionalbiologicalscreeningmethod,thenconfirmationofanypositiveresultsusingachemicalanalyticalmethodtoidentifywell-knowntoxinsanddetermineCTXcontent.Localofficialsshoulddetermineiftherearesentinelspeciesoffishthatconsumetoxicalgaeandwhethermonitoringthosefishaswellaspredatoryfishthatfeedonaffectedfishintheareaisappropriate.Anon-exhaustivelistoffishknownorsuspectedtobeassociatedwithCPisincludedasAnnexI.ThislistisprovidedasanexampletousersoftheCodeofPractice(CoP).

CompetentauthoritiesshoulddefinethecausativeorganismsofCTXintheirregion.MonitoringofalgaeinthelocalregioncanbeusedtopositivelyidentifybloomsofGambierdiscusorFukuyoaandcharacterizetheirtoxincontentwhenpresentinsufficientquantity.PassivesamplingoftoxinsinthewatercolumnbySolidPhaseAdsorptionToxinTracking(SPATT)devicescontaininglipophilicresinscanbeusedtocollecttoxinsfromwaterandhavethepotentialtoserveasanearlywarningtoolbutarenotusedroutinelyforCTXmonitoring.MoredetailsonanalyzingbenthicalgaearepresentedintheAnalyticalMethodssectionbelow.

Monitoringofbothalgaeandfishisrecommended,astheconcentrationand/orCTXprofileofbenthicdinoflagellatesdoesnotalwayscorrelatetocontaminationinfish;i.e.ahighconcentrationofCTXinanalgalbloommaynotcorrelatetoahighconcentrationofCTXinlocalfish,andcertainspeciesoffishmaycontainhighconcentrationsofCTXseventhoughthedensityofdinoflagellatesintheseawaterislow.Thisrelationshiphasbeenusedbysomecompetentauthoritiestosetlimitsonsizeorspeciesoffishpermittedforconsumptionfromaparticularregion.

Becausetoxinprofilestypicallydifferinalgaeversuscontaminatedfishandhumans(duetometabolismandbehavior,forinstancelargemigratoryspeciesthatcanfeedinotherareas),itisimportanttoexperimentallydeterminethecorrelationbetweenenvironmentallysampledtoxinsandtoxinsisolatedfromfishandhumanstoenabletracebackandtargetedsurveillanceactivities.Itmaybepossibletoidentifythepreferredsubstratefordinoflagellates(e.g.seagrassandmacroalgae)andifthereisaselectivityorpreferencebyherbivoresforconsumptionofthosesubstratesinaregion.

CompetentauthoritiescouldconsiderdevelopingmapsbasedonepidemiologicaldataandidentifiedprevalenceofGambierdiscusandFukuyoaspeciesinaregion,andtheassociatedfoodchainsfortoxintransferinthoseareas.Thesemapsmaybeusefultocompetentauthoritieswhentryingtodetermineifanareaneedstobeclosedtocommercial,subsistence,andrecreationalfishing.Mapsindicatingtoxicfishoralgaeshouldbeupdatedatreasonableintervalsasbloomsormigratorypatternsmaychangeseason-to-seasonorwithclimatechange,andresultscanbemorepreciseastestingmethodsimprove.Creatinghigh-riskmapsmaynotbeappropriateforallregions,e.g.itmaybedifficultforcountriesorregionswithmanyislandsandcoralreefsbecausehigh-riskareasarevariable.

AmorecomplexmapcouldincludeinformationonthetemporalandgeographictoxinprofilesofCTXsinthelocalareaforbothalgaeandfish.Itmaybepossibletouseinformationonthemigratorypatternsofreeffish(i.e.speciesoffishthatmigratefromanareawithlowGambierdiscusorFukuyoadensitytooneofhighdensity)andthetemporalswingsintoxicityoftheareaandcorrelatethemtopossibletoxinload,butthishasnotyetbeenpracticallydemonstrated.

Competentauthoritiesshouldconsiderdevelopingandroutinelyupdatinganepidemiologicaldatabasetocollectinformationonhumanillnesses,whichincludesthespeciesofthefishsuspectedofcausingtheillnessanditsoriginalcatchareaifknown(forcountriesreportingCP).Ideally,thedatacollectedbytheseprogramsshouldincludetheoriginanddateofcaptureofcontaminatedfish,thefishspeciesinvolved,CTXanalogueprofilesidentifiedfrommealremnantsandpatientsamples,theconcentrationoftoxins,severityofshortandlong-termsymptomsexperiencedbythepatient,theamountoffishconsumed,theanatomicalpartsofthefishconsumed,andotherrelevantinformation.ExamplesofmonitoringprogramsthatreportinformationonCP

arelistedintheFAO/WHOReportoftheExpertMeetingonCiguateraPoisoning.1

CXC83-20245

Competentauthoritiescouldutilizesocialscienceapproachessuchassurveysandinterviewstosolicitinformationfromlocalfishersaboutwhichareasyieldtoxicfish.LocalfishersoftenpossessknowledgeaboutareasofCPrisk,andthisinformationrepresentsacost-effectivewaytosupplementmorecostlysurveillanceoftoxinsinalgaeorseafoodbyanalyticalmethods.

WhencompetentauthoritiesarenotifiedofCPcases,itisimportanttofirstidentifythespeciesofseafoodinvolved,locatetheareaanddateofcapture,determinetheamount(weight)offishthepatientconsumed,recordthetypeandseverityofsymptoms,andrecoveranymealremnants(ifavailable)forconfirmationofCTXs.Aninitialriskassessmentshouldincludeidentificationofwhethertheseafoodwassourcedlocallyorimportedfromanotherarea.Ifthefishwascapturedlocally,investigationoftheconcentrationofCTXsinthealgae,fish,andotheranimalsinthecaptureareawouldbethenextsteptodetermineifanareashouldberestrictedtofishing.

4.2Othergovernmentalactivities

Whensufficientdatalinkingepidemiologyandtoxicologyareavailable,competentauthoritiescouldconsiderdevelopingmaximumlevels(MLs)fortheconcentrationofCTXspermittedinsusceptiblefish.BecauseofcurrentlimitationsinanalyticalmethodsandtoxicequivalencyfactorsofdifferentCTXs,MLsmaynotbeappropriateforalltoxinsorregions.

ExamplesofapproachessomeauthoritieshavetakentoreduceincidenceofCPintheirregionarelistedbelow.Theseapproachescanbeconsideredbutmaynotbeappropriateforallregionsoralltypesofseafood.

●Alistofbannedfishspecies(forbiddentobeimportedorsold).

●Alistoffishspeciesrecommendednottobeeaten(butnotforbidden).

●Alistofbannedspeciesthatcanbeimportedonlyifthesamespeciescaughtinthespecificseaareaoftheexportingcountryareusuallyconsumedintheexportingcountry,noCPhasoccurred,anditistestedandconfirmedtobefreeofCTX.

●AsizelimitforsomefishspeciesdependingonoriginorpreviouslinktoCPcases.

●Apositivelistofspeciesthatmaybesoldataregionalorlocalmarketdependingonplaceoforiginandseason.

●AprotocolwherebylistedspeciesequaltooraboveacertainmaximumweightmustbecheckedatauthorizedpointsoffirstsaletodiscardCTXactivityinfleshtissue.

●Apositivelistofcertainmarinefishspeciespermittedforimport.

Ifappropriate,competentauthoritiesshoulddevelopregulationsandvoluntaryguidelinestominimizethepossibilitythatCTX-contaminatedfisharecaughtorsold.Dependingonthepointofapplication,thesemayincluderequirementsforfoodhygienesystemsthatincludeHazardAnalysisandCriticalControlPoint(HACCP)plans.Inthatcase,authoritiesshouldconductinspectionstoensurethattheHACCPplancontainstheappropriatecriticallimits,monitoringprocedures,andrecord-keepingelements,andisproperlyandconsistentlyimplemented.

Ifmonitoringandsurveillanceisconducted,competentauthoritiesshouldreporttheresultsoftheirmonitoringtostakeholdersandpostwarnings/fishingadvisoriesinareaswherefishspecieslinkedtoCPmaybecaught.

Whenestablishingregulationsorotheractivitiessuchassurveillanceandmonitoringprotocols,itisrecommendedthatauthoritiesseektheadviceofexpertsonCP.Itmaybebeneficialtoconsultacommitteewithvariedbackgroundsandexpertisetomakethemostinformeddecisions.

4.3Analyticalmethods

Standardizedprotocolsfortestingofseafoodmatrices,algae,orpassivewatersamplesshouldbeusedsothatresultsarecomparableacrosslaboratoriesorbetweenregionsandcountries.ThisincludesmonitoringGambierdiscusandFukuyoadiversity(e.g.molecularapproachvs.morphotaxonomy,howtoapproachinclusionofnewspecies)orwhencollatingepidemiologicaldata.CTXsamplecollectionandtestingshouldbedoneusingsingleormulti-laboratoryvalidatedmethodstoensurecomparabilityofresults.

Whenpossible,moleculartechniquessuchasDNAbarcodingshouldbeusedtodeterminethespeciesoffishcontaminatedwithCTXs(eitheratthetimethefishiscaughtorasamealremnant).Informationonfishspeciescanbeusedtohelptracecontaminatedproductsbacktotheiroriginandtodetermineiffollow-upCTXtesting

ofotherfishintheharvestareaisnecessary.TestingmealremnantsforthepresenceofCTXsisimportantto

linkCPcaseswiththesourceoftheCTXs.

CXC83-20246

Analyticalmethodswiththecapabilitytoquantifytoxinsshouldbeused,eithermethodsthatmeasureindividualCTXanaloguesormethodsthatreportthesumofalltoxinspresent(i.e.cannotdistinguishindividualanalogues).BecauseCTXprofilesareknowntovarybylocationormarinespecies,differentreferencematerialsmaybeneededbasedonthetoxinprofileobservedandmethodused.

Whenpossible,laboratoriesshouldconsiderstoringaliquotsofCTX-contaminatedseafoodoralgae.Thesenaturallycontaminatedsamplescanbeusedfordevelopmentofreferencematerialsortosharewithotherresearchersperformingmethodvalidations.

Entitieswithexpertiseinanalyticalmethodsandindevelopingreferencematerialsarestronglyencouragedtoshareknowledgeandexpertiseandinitiatecollaborationwithregionsthataredevelopingorimprovingtheirsurveillanceandmonitoringactivities.

Becauseanalyticaltechnologieswillcontinuetoevolve,itisnotappropriatetorecommendspecificmethodsinaCoP.DetectionofCTXscanbeperformedusinganumberoftechniques,eachwithdifferingsensitivities,advantages,andlimitations.Methodsthathavebeenreportedintheliteratureare:theneuroblastomaassay(N2A),receptor-bindingassay(RBA),enzyme-linkedimmunosorbentassay(ELISA),mousebioassay(MBA),andliquidchromatography/(tandem)massspectrometry(LC-MSorLC-MS/MS).TheFAO/WHOReportoftheExpertMeetingonCiguateraPoisoningcontainsalistofmethodsthatwereavailablewhenthereportwaspublishedin2020.

AsmentionedinSection4.1,environmentalmonitoringmaybeundertakenwithatwo-tieredapproach:initialqualitativescreeningofseafoodoralgaeusingafunctionalbiologicalmethod(e.g.N2Aa)followedbyquantitativeanalysisofpositivesamplestodeterminetheoverallconcentrationofCTXs.ForCTXswherethestructureisknownand/orreferencematerialsareavailable,confirmationofpositiveresultscanbeperformedusingamethodthatcanidentifyCTXanaloguesanddeterminetheirindividualcontributiontotheoverallCTXconcentration(e.g.LC-MS).StakeholdersareencouragedtocontacttheircompetentauthoritiesforassistanceorconsultwithinternationalagenciessuchastheInternationalAtomicEnergyAgency(IAEA)onmethoddevelopmentandsharingoftechnology.

4.4Fishsectoroperators

Fishsectoroperators(peoplewhoworkintheareasoffishing,seafoodprocessing,andseafoodretail)shouldadheretoanynationalorregionallegislationforfoodhygienesystemsthatincludeHACCPplanspertainingtoCTXsorCPinrelevantcommodityspecies.Ifnotspecificallyrequiredbycompetentauthorities,firmsshouldconsideraddingCPtotheirHACCPplanstoreducethelikelihoodofCTX-contaminatedfishenteringthemarketplace.Theseplanscouldincludeanyrelevantnational,regional,orlocallimitsonsizeorsourceoffish,traceabilityoffishproductsfromfishingareastoretail,trainingonCPhazardsandregulations,andcriteriaforrejectingshipments.

Whenpossible,HACCPplansshouldcontainlimitsontheareasortimeoftheyearwhereandwhenfishcanbecaught,describehowmonitoringwillbeconductedandhowfrequently,establishcriteriaforrejectionofthecommodity,andutilizeanorganizedrecord-keepingsystem.

HACCPplansshouldincludeahazardanalysis;forCP,thatwouldincludelocalawarenessofthespeciesoffishcaughtwhichmaybesusceptibletoCTXaccumulationandanunderstandingofthelocationofthepotentiallytoxicareasforavoidance.Ifappropriate,restrictionsonthespeciesand/orsizeoffishknowntoaccumulateCTXscouldbepartoftheHACCPplan.HACCPplanscouldincludearequirementthatfishknowntoaccumulateCTXsandaboveasizelimitaretestedforCTXsbeforesale,butsuchwide-scaletestingcouldbeverycostlyorburdensomeandaccesstoanalyticalfacilitiesmightberestrictive.

Fishsectoroperatorsshouldinstitutepoliciesfortraceabilityoffishandaccurateidentificationofthespeciesbeingsold,especiallyforfishthatareintendedforexport,sothattheprocessingorretailfirmcanconfirmthattheproductwasnotcaughtfromarestrictedareaorisalocallyrestrictedspecies.

SeafoodprocessorswhopurchasefishdirectlyfromfishersshouldobtaininformationaboutfishinglocationstodeterminethepotentialforciguatoxicfishbasedonknowledgeoftheregionswhereCPoccurs(comparingtoriskmapsfromcompetentauthoritieswhereavailable).PrimaryseafoodprocessorsshouldavoidpurchasingfishspeciesassociatedwithCPfromestablishedoremergingareaslinkedwithCP.

WhereMLsofCTXsinfishforconsumptionareestablishedorrecommendedbycompetentauthorities,fishsectoroperatorscouldsetcriticallimitsonCTXconcentrationsinsurrogatestoreducethelikelihoodthatcommercialfisharecontaminated.Examplesofsurrogatesaresentinelfish,algae,orwaterinaparticularfishing

areadependingonwhathasbeendeterminedtobeappropriatefortheregion(seeSection4.1).

CXC83-20247

CTXsareknowntoconcentrateinfishviscera,liver,heads,androe.Therefore,itishighlyrecommendedthattheseorgansorbodypartsfromfishspecieslinkedtoCParenotsoldorconsumed.Seafoodprocessorsshouldhavepoliciesandproceduresforhandlinganddisposalofseafoodby-productsandseafood-derivedproductstominimizeriskstopublicandanimalhealthandtoprotecttheintegrityofthefoodandfeedchain.

4.5Datasharingandtraining

Competentauthoritiesareencouragedtosharetheirguidanceandbestpracticeswithinterestedparties,includingforthepurposesoftrainingofscientistsinrel