風(fēng)力發(fā)電塔英文文獻(xiàn)

1、The towerThe high tower is an essential component of the horizontal-axis turbine, a fact which can be both an advantage and a disadvantage.The costs, which can amount to up t0 20 % of the overall turbine costs, are, of course, disadvantageous. As the height of the tower increases,transportation, ass

2、embly and erection of the tower and servicing of the components also become increasingly more difficult and costly On the other hand, the specific energy yield of the rotor also increases with tower height. Theoretically, the optimum tower height lies at the point where the two growth functions of c

3、onstruction cost and energy yield intersect.unfortunately, this point of intersection cannot be specified in any generally applicable form.ln larger turbines, construction costs rise more rapidly with increasing tower height than in small turbines.An even greater role is played by the choice of site

4、.At inland sites,i. e.In regions with a high degree of surface roughness, the wind speed increases more slowly with height than at shore-based sites. Higher towers will, therefore, show better returns here than, for example,in offshore applications where the reverse effect is found. In inland region

5、s,large wind turbines with tower heights of 80 m and more are a decisive factor for the economic use of the wind potential. Next to its height, the second most important design parameter of a tower is its stiffness.Estaablishing the first natural bending frequency in the right way is an important ta

6、sk in the design. This determines the material required and, ultimately, the construction costs. The goal of the tower design is to achieve the desired tower height with the required stiffness at the lowest possible construction cost. The transportation and the erec,tion procedure is developing; int

7、o an increasing problem for the latest generation of multi-megawatt wimd turbines. Tower heights of more than 100m and towerhead weights of several hundred tons require a diameter at the tower base on more than five meters,with the consequence that road transportation will no longer be leasible. Thi

8、s becomes a strong incentive to find innovative solutions in the tower design. The materials available for the constrution are steel or concrete. Designs range from lattice construction to guyed or free-standing steel tubular towers up to massive concrete structure.The technical requirements posed b

9、y the overall system can be met by almost my variant but the economic optimum is only achieved by appropriately matching the selected tower design to the requirements set.This shows clearly that,although the tower of a wind turbine can be seen as a congventional structure when consideredby itself,it

10、s design also requires a considerable amount of understanding of the overall system and itsapplication. Apart from these functional aspects,it should not be overlooked that the tower, even more so than the nacelle, determines the outward appearance of a wind turbine. Due atten-tion should, therefore

11、, be accorded aesthetics, even if this implies some additional costs.12.1Tower configurationsThe oldest types of wind turbines, the windmills, had no towers but millhouses. These were low in height in relation to the rotor diameter and of voluminous construction in accordance with their function as

12、a work space, thus also providing for the necessary stiff-ness. Soon, however, the advantage of increased height was recognised and the millhouses became more slender and more tower-like. But it is only in modern-day constructions,first in the small American wind turbines and then later in the first

13、 power-generating wind power stations, that masts or towers were used, the sole function of which lay in supporting the rotor and the mechanical components of the tower head.As a consequence of this development, designs and materials for towers increased in variety. Steel and concrete took the place

14、 of the wood construction of the millhouses.ln the early years of the development of modern wind energy technology, the most varied tower designs were tried out and tested but in the course of time, the range has been narrowed down to free-standing designs, mainly of steel and more rarely of concret

15、e.Lattice TypeThe simplest method of building high and stiff tower constructions is as a three-dimensional truss, so-called lattice or truss towers. Lattice towers were, therefore, the preferred design of the first experimental turbines and in the early years also for smaller commercial turbines (Fi

16、g. 12.1). Today, the lattice tower has again become an alternative to the steel tubular tower in the case of the very high towers required for large turbines sited in inland regions.Concrete TypeIn the thirties, steel-reinforced concrete towers were used for the so-called Aeromotors in Denmark (Chap

17、t. 2.1). These towers were also characteristic of the earlier large experimental Danish turbines (Fig. 12.2) Later, steel towers became dominant also in the commercial turbines in Denmark. Concrete towers have recently gained favour again for tower height of more than 80m.Free-standing steel tubular

18、 towers the most common tower type currently in use is the free-standing steel tube tower.Mastery of the vibrational behaviour has made it easier to use this type so that steel tubular towers with very low design stiffness can be impemented.It has thus become possible to lower the structural mass, a

19、nd thus the costs of the towers, considerably by using soft designs (Chapt.12.5).Guyed steel tubular towers Down-wind rotors made it necessary to use slender steel tubular towers in order to keep the tower shadow effect as small as possible. These were anchored with steel cables or in some cases wit

20、h stiff trusses to ensure the required bending stiffness (Fig. 12.4). Despite their comparatively low overall mass, guyed towers are not very cost-efficient. The guys and the additional anchoring foundations required inflate the total cost. Moreover, the guys are considered a hindrance in agricultur

21、al areas.12.2 Free-Standing Steel Tubular Towers Today,free-standing steel tubular towers are by far the preferred type of construction for commercial wind turbine installations,the main reason being the short on-site assembly and erection time. Small towers with a height of up to 20m can be fabrica

22、led of one piece at the manufacturers and bolted to the Foundation at the site. Higher towers of up to 100m height are made of several sections which are bolted together so that no on-site welding is requircd. THe preference for steel tubular towers is also buoyed by the very low steel prices in the

23、 last twenty years.12.2.1 Strength and Stiffness Design The dimensioning of a tower is determinsd by a number of strength and stiffness require-ments. Factors to be considered are the breaking strength required for surviving extreme wind speeds,the fatigue strength required for 20 or 30 years of ope

24、ration and the stiffness with respect to the vibrational behaviour.Breaking Strength The static load is determined by the tower-head weight, the lowers own weight, and the acrodynamic rotor thrust.In turbines with blade pitch control, rotor thrust is generally at its highest level when the rotor is

25、running at its rated speeds.The maximum bending moment distribution at the tower is obtained with rotors without blade pitch control(stall-controlled turbines) or when the worst rotor blade position is demanded for a particular load case.In the standard case, the question of breaking load will be re

26、duced to that of the bending monment acting on the tower base.Fatigue loading The dynamic loading caused by the rotor thrust during operation has a definite impact on the fatigue life of slender tower.Additional loads caused by the vibrational behaviour in cases of resonance must also be taken into

27、consideration.Hence a purely static stress analysis,commonly required by the building authorities for conventional buildings,is not appropriate for all tower designs of a wind turbine.stiffness The stiffness requirement is derived from the chosen vibrational concept of the turbine as a whole.It is g

28、enerally focused on the requirement for a particular first natural bending frequency,even though other natural frequencies,and particularly the natural torsion frequency,must be checked with regard to the dynamics of the yaw system of the turbine.Buckling strength One important criterion which plays

29、 a role at least for thin-walled steel tubular towers with a low natural bending frequency below the 1 P excitation is the resistance to local buckling of the tube wall. As a rcsult of the increasing weight optimisation in modern steel tubular tower,the buckling strength frequently becomes the deter

30、mining dimensioning factor for the required wall thicknesses. The example of the MOD-2 clearly illustrate in a real case the consequences of these load cases with respect to the required tower wall thickness.Despite the soft tower design, the necessary wall thickness is determined by the stiffness r

31、equirement,a result which is typical of almost all comparable modern tower concept.This becomes even more pronounced when the tower height in relation to the rotor diameter is greater than was the case in the MOD-2.Apart from a few exceptions,the important criterion for dimensioning the tower is, th

32、erefor,the stiffness requirement. Tower stiffness is characterised by several natural frequencies,but only the first and the second natural bending frequency and the first natural torsion frequency are of any practical significance.In most towers, the first natural torsion frequency is much higher t

33、han the first natural bending frequency.the torsion frequency of free-standing steel tubular towers is approximately three times higher if their diameter/wall thickness ratio lies within normal limits.It is, therefore,sufficient to use the first natural bending frequency for obtaining a rough overvi

34、ew.With a given tower height and head weight,the tower must be designed in such a way that the required first natural bending frequency is reached. A stiff tower design is always a simpler and safer solution with regard to vibrational behaviour,but the mass of the tower required to achieve this beco

35、mes very high.In wind turbines with tower heights of more than 80m, a stiff tower design can, therefore, no longer be realised in practice. For economic reasons, the stifness should be kept as low as technically feasible.For simple tower geometries,for example a cylindrical steel tube,dimensioning m

36、odels were developed which permit the required wall thickness to be calculated by using relatively simple formulae, on the basis of the said load cases with a given height, tower head mass and the chosen stiffness concept of the wind turbine2. These models are mainly suited to demonstrating the infl

37、uence of the dimensioning parameters, thus helping to understand their significance with regard to tower optimisation. In reality, the calculated masses are often lower. Manufacturers increasingly tend to favour more complicated designs such as wall thickness varying in stages with diameter, or weig

38、ht-optimised tapered shapes to minimise the tower mass and thus the costs. Figures 12.9 and 12.10 show the specific mass of free-standing steel tubular towers,referred to the rotor-swept area, of various turbine sizes and concepts. The shaded areas in the diagrams are based on var/ous simplifying as

39、sumptions.A tower height equal to the rotor diameter has been assumed. For two- and three-bladed turbines, different tower head masses have been assumed as a function of the rotor diameter according to the approaches in Chapt. 19.4. The stiffness requirement, i. e. the towers first natural bending f

40、requency in relation to the rated rotor speed, has been taken to be l.5 P and 0.75 P (Chapt. 11.4.1).The shaded areas of the diagrams show the specific tower mass to be expected with the above assumptions. As anticipated, the lightest towers are to be found with a first naturalbending frequency belo

41、w 1 P. Almost all of the more recent turbines tend towards a very soft tower design of approximately o.7 P. The savings in weight and cost achieved by this concept are obviously considered to be significant by the manufacturers.In some cases it is noticeable that the overall mass of some existing to

42、wers differs considerably from the calculated values. The reasons for this are differently chosen relations of rotor diameter to tower height,but also a more weight-optimised geometry. For example,a conical tower base will increase stiffness or, respectively, decrease the tower mass for a given stif

43、fness. The same effect is achieved with a tapered change in wall thickness. The masses of finished towers will, therefore, be sometimes less than the calculated masses in the diagrams of Figures 12.9 and 12.10. On the other hand, the tower height is much greater in relation to the rotor diameter,par

44、ticularly at inland sites. The more recent wind turbines are offered with different tower heights of up t0 1.5 times the rotor diameter.ln these cases,the specific tower mass becomes very much higher than calculated in the model above.12.2.2 Manufacturing TechnIques and Constructlon Almost without e

45、xception,the tower of the large turbines of today have a conical shape,with a diameter that diminishes from the base up to the tower head.Compared with a cylindrical geometry,this saves weight for a given required stiffness. The towers consist of a number of prefabricated sections with a length of u

46、p to about 30m. The sections are produced from sheets of steel plate with a thickness of 10-50 mm.The sheets, which have a widlh of about 2 m, are rolled into a circular shape on a rolling stand. From these segments, the tower section is welded together.ln most cases,automatic welders are used for t

47、his. The welding requires special attention in view of theloading situation of the tower. The quality is checked by means of the usual methods such as ultrasonics,X-rays and examination for surface cracks.the tower sheets consist of commercially available St52 grade structural steel plate and, more

48、rarely St48. Higher-strength material is used for most of the forged joining flanges and the foundation section. At the ends of each tower section, the internal fianges are welded on. They consist of high-strength steel and occasionally of forged steel. Shaping and welding of flanges requires some e

49、xpericnce since the components can easily become distorted.the consequence being that the flanges will not match during the assembly. The resultant gaps between the tower sections are a quality defect frequently found in steel tubular tower. As a rule, the tower is joined to the foundation by means

50、of a so-called foundation section.This is manufactured separately and incorporated in the foundation when the concrete is poured. The tower is joined to the nacelle via the azimuth flange. It accommodates the azimuth bearing if a roller bearing is used. The azimuth flange is often a cast part. Surfa

51、ce treatment is an important feature regarding the quality of steel towers. Corrosion must be prevented over decades even in an aggressive environment (sea air). After some blasting,the tower section are covered with thermally applied zinc coating.The outer coating consists of at least two and at mo

52、st three different paint coats.Some countries or regions have regulations regarding the color of the tower. Manufacturing steel tubular towers with a diameter of up to about 4m is a conventional technology that does not make any great demands on the equipment of the manufacturers.At heights of more

53、than 90m, the tower base diameter becomes greater than 4.5m and the required thickness of the steel exceeds 40 mm. Shaping the Steel sheels,i.e. roll-bending them,will then require special machines which are not always available in normal structural steel works. To this is added that, due to the lar

54、ge diameter, the lower tower sections can no longer be transported by road.12.2.3 Climbing Aids and Internal Installation The tower must provide for a safe ascent to the nacelle and also contain certain electrical installation,particularly the lead-down of the power transmission cables to the tower

55、base.This requires certain internal installation.Depending on the height,a number of intermediate platforms are normally installed,typically one platform for each tower section .Up to a height of about 60-70m simple vertical ladders with climbing protection are used for the ascent.If required by the

56、 operator,simple so-called climbing liftsare installed for tower heights abover 80m.The cables for transmitting the electrical power are hanging free with a running loop in the upper tower section.The mounting elements for introducing the cables into the tower are part of the tower installations.In

57、addition,internal lighting is mandatory for maintenance work in the tower.In large turbines,it has become customary to accommodate transformer,switching panel and control lamps for reading of the operating date in the tower.The transformer,in particular,requires considerable space and the installati

58、on of a ventilating and cooling system.At the tower base, a secure entry door is required which is usually at an elevated level with respect to the building in order to prevent water form penetrating in the case of bad weather.For some applications and depending on the internal equipment,i.e.transfo

59、rmers and control systems, the internal climate of the tower has to be controlled. Particularly for offshore applications, air conditioning includind dehumidifying and filtering the intake air is necessary in order to avoid corrosion problem on the electrical and electronic equipment.The towers of small wind turbines are of much simpler construction.In some case,existing tubular elements from other applications can be used for the