自考00832英語詞匯學(xué)筆記 自考英語詞匯學(xué)小抄 自考英語詞匯學(xué)串講.doc.doc

樣本與筆記說明 1、本文檔僅為 引言及其 一章 樣本，完整版共 18 頁 如需完整版 請 QQ： 67460666 手機： 137 8381 6366 聯(lián)系 官方網(wǎng)址： www.ZiKaoBJ.com 2、樣本和完整版筆記均嚴(yán)格按最新制定教材目錄順序整理，每個知識點既可以作為選擇填空又可用在簡答論述，而不是絕對按照考試題型總結(jié)的，因此更利于全面把握知識點或者考試時臨時翻閱。 關(guān)于站長： 本站長目前于西南政法大學(xué)攻讀研究生，參與了西政開辦的各類考試輔導(dǎo)班（自考、司考、公務(wù)員、考研、成教、專升本等）。本站所有筆記均為最新自考核心班內(nèi)部權(quán)威資料，經(jīng)過細心整理成了 WORD 版本，便于打印、攜帶和查找。 關(guān)于筆記： 我們的每一份資料都凝結(jié)著開班八年專業(yè)授課老師辛勤的心血，每一份資料都是他們智慧的結(jié)晶，每一份資料都是有生命的知識系統(tǒng)，我們求抓使筆記覆蓋到每個知識點，抓住最核心的題目，盡我們最大之力保證通過率。 筆記特點： 本站所有自考成考筆記是我們輔導(dǎo)班經(jīng)驗豐富的老師的授課筆記精心整理而成，是一套完整復(fù)習(xí)資料，內(nèi)容全面，或按不同題型分類整理，或按章節(jié)順序整理，便于打印、攜帶和查找。 鄭重承諾： （ 1）每部筆記的整理嚴(yán)格依據(jù)最新教材和考綱； （ 2）力求涵蓋到每個知識點； （ 3）知識點覆蓋率 80%，輕松過關(guān) 。 省錢省力： （ 1）省時： A4 紙分欄，排版精美，無需再整理； （ 2）省力：可直接看筆記，無需再看教材； （ 3）省錢：省下購買教材的費用，也免去了補考費 聯(lián)系方式： QQ： 67460666 旺旺： fsweetie 官方網(wǎng)址： www.ZiKaoBJ.com 五 鉆信譽自考筆記淘寶店： / 00832 英語詞匯學(xué) （引言及第一章樣本，完整版 18 頁） 筆記依據(jù)教材 英語詞匯學(xué) 張維友 主編， 外語教學(xué)與研究出版社 筆記依據(jù)目錄 Introduction Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary Chapter 2 The Development of the English Vocabulary Chapter 3 Word Formation I Chapter 4 Word Formation II Chapter 5 Word Meaning Chapter 6 Sense Relations and Semantic Field Chapter 7 Changes in Word Meaning Chapter 8 Meaning and Context Chapter 9 English Idioms Chapter 10 English Dictionaries Introduction On the course: lexicology 1. Interpolation （ 1 ） Greeting: hi everybody, welcome to . to learn the English lexicology （ 2） Interpolation to the courses: Generally speaking, the courses of English major consist of 4 parts: they are A. the comprehensive courses: B. the knowledgeable courses: English-speaking countries: A Survey/ selected readings in English and American literatures/European culture, introduction. C. the skillful courses: English writing/ oral English/ English listening D. the theoretic courses: English grammar/ English lexicology. （ 3） on English lexicology Ok, lets touch upon the course: from the contents, we learn that the course cosmists of an introduction and ten chapters； different chapters of course, have different knowledgeable aspects with different methods and different points. 2. The details concerned. Introduction of the course 1. Introduction Its about the nature and domain of English lexicology/ methods of study of this course. 0.1 The Nature and Domain of English Lexicology domain: scope 研究的領(lǐng)域 （ 1 ） Definition: Lexicology is a branch of linguistics, inquiring into the origins and meanings of words（ WNWD） . 本句翻譯：詞匯學(xué)是語言學(xué)的分支，它主要是研究詞的來源以及詞的意義（詞匯學(xué)的定義）。 （ 2 ） Domain: English lexicology aims at investigating and studying the morphological structures of English words and word equivalents, their semantic structures, relations, historical development, formation and usages. 本句翻譯：它研究的是英語詞匯的形態(tài)結(jié)構(gòu)，同時它還研究英語詞匯的語義結(jié)構(gòu)、英語詞匯的發(fā)展歷史和英語詞匯的形成與用法。 morphological 形態(tài) （ 3 ） Nature ： English lexicology is a theoretically-oriented course. It is chiefly concerned with the basic theories of words in general and of English words in particular. However, it is a practical course as well, for in the discussion, we shall inevitably deal with copious stocks of words and idioms, and study a great many usage examples. Naturally, there will be a large quantity of practice involved. 本句翻譯：它是一個理論性的學(xué)科。同時它還是一個實踐性的學(xué)科。 0.2 Its Relation to Other Disciplines disciplines: subject 學(xué)科 English lexicology itself is a subbranch of linguistics. But it embraces other academic disciplines, such as morphology, semantics, etymology, stylistics, lexicography. Each of them has been established as discipline in its own right. 本句翻譯：英語詞匯學(xué)與五大學(xué)科相關(guān)：形態(tài)學(xué)、語義學(xué)、詞源學(xué)、文體風(fēng)格學(xué)和詞典學(xué)。 Morphology is the branch of grammar which studies the structure or forms of words, primarily through the use of morpheme construct. This is one of the major concerns of lexicology, for we shall discuss the inflections of words and word-formation and examine how morphemes are combined to form words and words to form sentences. 本句翻譯：形態(tài)學(xué)是語法學(xué)的分支，主要是講詞的結(jié)構(gòu)以及詞的構(gòu)成。當(dāng)然這也屬于詞匯學(xué)的一個領(lǐng)域。 morpheme 詞素 word-formation 構(gòu)詞法 inflections of words 詞的變形 Etymology is traditionally used for the study of the origins and history of the form and meaning of words. Modern English is derived from the languages of early Germanic tribes with a fairly small vocabulary. We shall study how this small vocabulary has grown into a huge modern English vocabulary and explain the changes that have taken place in the forms and meanings of words. 本句翻譯：詞源學(xué)主要是研究詞的來源以及詞義的歷史發(fā)展構(gòu)成。從英國的歷史發(fā)展過程看，英語語言首先是來源于日爾曼部落的語言。 Semantics is the study of meanings of different linguistic levels: lexis, syntax, utterance, discourse, etc. But lexicology will focus on the lexical level. The types of meaning and sense relations such as polysemy, homonymy, synonymy, antonymy, hyponymy and semantic field all belong to the scope of semantic study and constitute an important part of lexicology. 本句翻譯：語義學(xué)分為不同的語言層次：詞匯層面的、句法層面的以及話語層面的、發(fā)音層面的等。詞匯學(xué)的研究集中詞匯層面。 polysemy 多義詞 Stylistics is the study of style. It is concerned with the users choices of linguistic elements in a particular context for special effects. Among the areas of study: lexis, phonology, syntax, graphology, we shall concentrate on lexis, exploring the stylistic values of words. 本句翻譯：文體風(fēng)格學(xué)主要是關(guān)注作者或使用語言的人對語言因素的選擇問題。當(dāng)然在這個當(dāng)中我們會把焦點集中在評說剛才提到的詞匯方面。stylistics 文體風(fēng)格學(xué) Lexicography shares with lexicology the same problems: the form, meaning, origins and usages of words, but they have a pragmatic difference. 本句翻譯：我們講的詞匯學(xué)和詞典學(xué)在某方面有共同的問題，它們共同研究的可能有詞形、詞義、詞的來源以及詞的用法等，但它們的實際用途不一樣。 0.3 Methods of Study （ 1） Two approaches There are generally two approaches to the study of words, namely synchronic and diachronic. synchronic 共時法 diachronic 歷時法 （ 2） Definition: A, synchronic From a synchronic point of view, words can be studied at a point in time, disregarding whatever changes might be taking place. For example, the word wife now means a married woman, esp. in relation to her husband. This is the current meaning. It has an obsolete meaning woman, which is only preserved in midwife, housewife, etc. midwife 助產(chǎn)士 housewife 家庭主婦 B, diachronic However, if we take a diachronic perspective, we will consider the word historically, looking into its origin and changes in form and meaning. In this light, the word wife evolved from the Old English form wif, meaning woman, but later it became specialized in the course of development to the modern meaning a married woman. （ 3） Focus on the synchronic Though our focus is on the synchronic description of words, we need the diachronic approach as a supplement, for a knowledge of historical development of the vocabulary will definitely be of great help to us in our language study. 0.4 Aims and Significance of the Course Language study involves the study of speech sounds, grammar and vocabulary. Vocabulary has proved particularly important and certainly the most difficult. In the discussion of the relationship between words and structure, Wilkins（ 1972） asserts, Without grammar very little can be conveyed, without vocabulary nothing can be conveyed. The lexicologist McCarthy（ 1990） echoed the same message that no matter how well the student learns grammar, no matter how successfully he masters the sounds of a L2, without words to express a wide range of meanings, communication in that language cannot happen in any meaningful way. 本句翻譯：英語的學(xué)習(xí)有三個方面的內(nèi)容，涉及到語音、語法以及詞匯。就詞匯或語法而言，威爾金斯指出，如果我們沒有語法知識的話，我們很難表達自己的感情、思想，如果沒有詞匯知識的話，你什么東西也不能表達。另外一個語言學(xué)家，麥卡錫也產(chǎn)生了共鳴，不管你的語 法學(xué)得如何，對第二語言的發(fā)音掌握如何，沒有足夠詞匯來表達你的思想，你用這門語言肯定不會進行一種完全有意義的交流。 A good knowledge of morphological structure of English words and rules of word-formation will help learners develop their personal vocabulary and consciously increase their word power. The information of the historical development and the principles of classification will give them a deeper understanding of word-meaning and enable them to organize, classify and store words more effectively. 本句翻譯：（ 1）如果我們有好的詞匯的結(jié)構(gòu)知識，掌握了一些構(gòu)詞法，就有助于學(xué)習(xí)者提高自己語言的詞匯量，以及有意識地增加語言詞 匯的能力。（ 2）如果我們對詞匯的歷史發(fā)展以及詞語分類的原則有很好的了解，則會使我們能夠更好地理解詞的語義，從而也使我們更有效地組織語言，進行語言的分類。 Language teachers will find lexicology even more helpful. With some knowledge of lexicology, they will be able to handle the teaching materials, particularly those concerning words more professionally. 本句翻譯：學(xué)習(xí)詞匯學(xué)不但對學(xué)生有好處，而且對語言教師也有很大的幫助。 Conclusion: 0.1 the nature and domain of English lexicology：重點 0.3 Methods of Study 1） Two approaches 2） Definition: A, synchronic B, diachronic 3） Focus on the synchronic Chapter 1 Basic Concepts of Words and Vocabulary （ 1） Introduction: The basic concepts concerning words and vocabulary: A. the relation between sound and meaning. B.the relation between sound and form. （ 2） Important points 1.1 What Is a Word What is a word? This question has occupied the attention of linguists for ages. Although numerous definitions have been suggested, none of them seem to be perfect. Scholars still do not agree on the definition of the word. 本句翻譯：我們有許多語言學(xué)家在研究到底什么叫詞。詞的定義一直困擾著語言學(xué)家，但是他們對詞下的定義都彼此不相一致，這個現(xiàn)象已經(jīng)持續(xù)了許多年。 Analysis to the definition of the word In this line a word can be defined as a meaningful group of letters printed or written horizontally across a piece of paper. 本句翻譯：從視角看詞是被打印在書本上的，或平衡、均勻地寫出來的，是由許許多多有意義的字母構(gòu)成的。 As defined in terms of spoken language, a word is viewed as a sound or combination of sounds which are made voluntarily with human vocal equipment. 本句翻譯：如果我們從詞的讀音看，詞可以看作是由人體發(fā)音器官發(fā)出的不同的聲音的組合。 According to semanticists, a word is a unit of meaning. Grammarians, however, insist that a word be a free form that can function in a sentence, etc. To sum up, the definition of a word comprises the following points: （ 1） a minimal free form of a language； （ 2） a sound unity； （ 3） a unit of meaning； （ 4） a form that can function alone in a sentence. 本句翻譯：根據(jù)語義學(xué)家的觀點看，詞是意義的組合 ；根據(jù)語法學(xué)家的觀點看，詞又可以自由組合，這種組合能夠在句子里面起作用，等等。 1） Therefore, we can say that a word is a minimal free form of a language 本句翻譯：詞是語言中的最小自由形式 2） that has a given sound and meaning and syntactic function. 本句翻譯：詞有固定的讀音，固定的意義，固定的句法功能。 Words can be simple and complex, yet all must comply with these criteria. Man and fine are simple, but they each have sound, meaning and syntactic function, and each can be used alone in a sentence. Naturally they are words. 本句翻譯：詞有簡單的詞和復(fù)雜的詞，但是都必須遵循這些標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。人和五都是簡單的詞，但是它們都有發(fā)音、詞義和句法功能，每個詞都可以單獨 用在句中。很顯然，它們就是詞。 There are words which are complex such as misfortune and management. Both are polysyllabic words and can function as subject, object and predictive in a sentence. 本句翻譯：較復(fù)雜的詞，例如 misfortune 和management，它們都是多音節(jié)詞，在句中可以作主語、賓語和表語。 Though misfortune can be further divided as mis- and fortune, the former cannot stand alone as a word. 本句翻譯：它雖然可以分成 “mis”和 “fortune”兩部分，但是分開之后，前面 “mis”不能在句子當(dāng)中充當(dāng)成分。 Similarly, management can be broken down as manage and ment, the latter cannot be used freely, either. Blackmail can be separated into black and mail, and both can work as independent units in a sentence, the meaning of each, however, is by no means the combination of the two. Black is a colour, opposite to white, and mail denotes something sent by post, yet when they are put together, the combined form means compel, compulsion, to make payment or action in return for concealment of discreditable secrets etc. Hence blackmail is a different word（ COD） . 1.2 Sound and Meaning （ 1） the relationships between the sound and meaning 1） A word is a symbol that stands for something else in the world, which is outside the language system. 本句翻譯：詞是語言世界之外的現(xiàn)實世界中代替其它物體的符號。 Each of the worlds cultures has come to agree that certain sounds will represent certain persons, things, properties, processes and activities. 2） Sound is the physical aspect of a word. And meaning is what the sound refers to. 本句翻譯：音是詞的物質(zhì)外殼。義是音的所指。 （ 2） This symbolic connection is almost always arbitrary 1） there is no logical relationship between the sound which stands for a thing or an idea and the actual thing and idea itself. 本句翻譯：它們之間關(guān)系的任意性是說：音和實際的實物和實際思想本身并沒有一定的邏輯關(guān)系，所以這種關(guān)系就稱為任意性。 A dog is called a dog not because the sound and the three letters that make up the word just automatically suggest the animal in question. 本句翻譯：狗之所以叫狗并不是因為它的讀音，也不是因為它的三個字母組合起來表明它就是狗的意思，因為在實際的讀音中 “dog”的音與實際的實物并沒有一定的邏輯關(guān)系，所以它們之間的關(guān)系是任意的。 2） The relationship between them is conventional because people of the same speech community have agreed to refer to the animal with this cluster of sounds. In different languages the same concept can be represented by different sounds. Woman, for example, becomes Frau in German, femme in French and fn in Chinese. On the other hand, the same sound mi:t is used to mean meet, meat, mete. Knight and night, though denoting entirely different things, yet have the same sound. conventional 約定俗成的 1.3 Sound and Form （ 1） It is generally agreed that the written form of a natural language is the written record of the oral form. Naturally the written form should agree with the oral form. In other words, the sound should be similar to the form. natural language：自然語言，是與計算機語言相對應(yīng)而言的。 This is fairly true of English in its earliest stage i.e. Old English. The speech of the time was represented very much more faithfully in writing than it is today. 本句翻譯：在古英語時期，它的書寫形式與口語形式很相似。 （ 2） With the development of the language, more and more differences occur between the two. 本句翻譯：隨著時間的推移，歷史的發(fā)展，音和形之間的距離越拉越大。 What caused more and more differences between them? The internal reason for this is that the English alphabet was adopted from the Romans, which does not have a separate letter to represent each sound in the language so that some letters must do double duty or work together in combination. 本句翻譯：它的內(nèi)部原因是由于英語中的字母是借助于拉丁字母，英語字母中沒有一個單獨的字母代表一個發(fā)音（英語字母僅僅 26 個，而發(fā)音要多于英語的字母），所以我們就可以看到有的字母可能會兼兩職或三職，其讀音形式則不同。 Another reason is that the pronunciation has changed more rapidly than spelling over the years, and in some cases the two have drawn far apart.（易出簡答題） During the last five hundred years, though the sounds of speech have changed considerably, there have been no corresponding changes of spelling. 本句翻譯：另一個原因是由于發(fā)音的變化遠遠快于拼寫的變化。這兩者的差異越來越大。在過去的五百年中，雖然發(fā)音發(fā)生了大量的變化，但是拼寫沒有相應(yīng)地發(fā)生那么多變化。 The third reason is that some of the differences were created by the early scribes. 本句翻譯：第三個原因是由早期的抄寫員造成的。 In the early days the spelling differences did not matter very much as people were not so used to seeing words in print, and the spelling was not fixed as it is today. 本句翻譯：早期拼寫的不同對人們來說都是不怎么重要的，因為人們并不經(jīng)?？吹酱蛴〕鰜淼奈淖?，拼寫沒有現(xiàn)在固定。 As a result, no one was quite sure how some English words should be spelled. 本句翻譯：當(dāng)然人們就不在意拼寫是這樣還是那樣的了。 Before the printing press was brought to England, everything was written by hand. 本句翻譯：在印刷術(shù)引進到應(yīng)該之前，人們的書寫方式都是用手寫。 Those scribes, who made a living by writing for other people often worked in haste to meet the needs of the King, Church, and merchants. 本句翻譯：抄寫員主要以抄寫來維持生活，他們快速抄寫以滿足國王、教堂和商人的需要。 One problem was that several letters written with short vertical strokes such as i, u, v, m, v and n looked all alike. vertical 豎寫的 To solve the problem in part, they changed the letter u to o when it came before m, n, or v. 本句翻譯：為了部分地解決這些問題，他們規(guī)定當(dāng) u 出現(xiàn)在 m、 n、 v 前面時改成 o。 This is how sum, cum, wuman, wunder, munk came to be written as some, come, woman, wonder, monk. At some point, too, the scribes seem to have decided that no English word should end in u or v. Thus, in time, an e was added to such words as live, have, due, and true but not pronounced（ Deighton 1979） . 本句翻譯：他們規(guī)定英語中的單詞不能以字母 u或 v 結(jié)尾，所以如果以 u 或 v 結(jié)尾，后面就要加一個不發(fā)音的 e，于是便導(dǎo)致了現(xiàn)在英語的詞形。 In the late 1500, printing became well established. It helped to freeze the spelling of words. The standardization makes spelling sacred. Dictionaries did their share in stopping spelling changes. Finally comes the borrowing, which is an important channel of enriching the English vocabulary. 本句翻譯：由于外來詞的引進，使得英語的讀音和詞形間的差異也越來越大。 The early borrowings were assimilated and the later ones, however, do not conform to the rules of English pronunciation and spelling, e.g. stimulus（ L） , dnouement（ F） , fiesta（ Sp） , eureka（ Gr） , and kimono（ Jap） . 本句翻譯：早期的外來語被同化了，后來的外來語沒有遵循英語的發(fā)音和拼寫規(guī)則。例如，stimulus（ L） , dnouement（ F） , fiesta（ Sp） , eureka（ Gr） , and kimono（ Jap） . assimilate 吸收 The written form of English is, therefore, an imperfect representation of the spoken form. From time to time in history, some British and American scholars have made efforts to reform the English spelling, but with little success. 本句翻譯：所以英語的書面形式不是口語形式的完美的表現(xiàn)。歷史上的每個時期都有一些英美兩國的學(xué)者試圖進行拼寫改革，（盡量使拼寫 與讀音保持一致），但是收效甚微。 In spite of the differences, at least eighty percent of the English words fit consistent spelling patterns. 本句翻譯：盡管它們之間有許多不一致的地方，但是總的來說 80%的英語單詞還是有規(guī)則可循的。 And even those spellings that appear to be irregular may have more regularity and usefulness than we realize. 本句翻譯：有的單詞的拼寫表面上看是不規(guī)則的，但是它們卻比我們意識到的更有規(guī)律性和有效性。 In such words as hymn, condemn, bomb, for example, the last letter of each is silent. But when these words are extended into longer ones, the silent letters become audible: hymnal, condemnation and bombard. This is a general rule. 本句翻譯：有些單詞如 hymn, condemn, bomb，最后一個字母不發(fā)音。但是當(dāng)這些單詞被拉長的時候，不發(fā)音的字母開始發(fā)音了： hymnal, condemnation and bombard。這就是總的規(guī)則。 1.4 Vocabulary （ 1） All the words in a language make up its vocabulary. 本句翻譯：語言中的所有的詞構(gòu)成它們的詞匯。 （ 2） The term vocabulary is used in different senses. 本句翻譯：英語詞匯的理解有多重涵義。 Not only can it refer to the total number of the words in a language, but it can stand for all the words used in a particular historical period, e.g. Old English vocabulary, Middle English vocabulary and Modern English vocabulary. We also use it to refer to all the words of a given dialect, a given book, a given discipline and the words possessed by an individual person. 本句翻譯：同時，詞匯有時還指特定方言中的詞匯、特定某本書的詞匯、特定的某個人的詞匯量。 English is one of the worlds highly developed languages. Naturally the vocabulary is one of the largest and richest. The general estimate ofthe present-day English vocabulary is over one millionwords. 1.5 Classification of Words Words may fall into the basic word stock and nonbasic vocabulary by use frequency, into content words and functional words by notion, and into native words and borrowed words by origin. use frequency 使用頻率 notion 概念 origin 詞源 1.5.1 Basic Word Stock and Nonbasic Vocabulary （ 1） The basic word stock is the foundation（基礎(chǔ)）of the vocabulary accumulated over centuries and forms the common core of the language. 本句翻譯：基本詞匯是長時期以來積累的詞匯的基礎(chǔ)，是語言的共核。 key word 關(guān)鍵詞 （ 2 ） Though words of the basic word stock constitute a small percentage of the English vocabulary, yet it is the most important part of it. These words have obvious characteristics. 本句翻譯：基本詞匯在英語語言中所占的數(shù)量是有限的，但所起的作用很重要。 基本詞匯的主要特征有： 1. All national character.（全民性） （ 1） Words of the basic word stock denote the most common things and phenomena of the world around us, 本句翻譯：基本詞匯指的是 日常生活中經(jīng)常遇到的現(xiàn)象和物體。 （ 2） which are indispensable to all the people who speak the language. 本句翻譯：它是我們生活中必不可少的內(nèi)容。 indispensable 必不可少 They include words relating to the following respects: 本句翻譯：基本詞匯所涉及的內(nèi)容有： （ 1） Natural phenomena（自然現(xiàn)象） : rain, snow, fire, water, sun, moon, spring, summer, wind, hill； （ 2） Human body and relations（人本身以及人與人之間所涉及的單詞） : head, foot, hand, face, father, mother, brother, sister, son, daughter； （ 3） Names of plants and animals（有關(guān)動植物的名稱） : oak, pine, grass, pear, apple, tree, horse, cow, sheep, cat, dog, chicken； oak 橡樹 pine 松樹 （ 4） Action, size, domain, state（表示形為、狀態(tài)、領(lǐng)域、范疇的名詞和動詞） : come, go, eat, hear, beat, carry, good, evil, old, young, hot, cold, heavy, white, black； （ 5） Numerals, pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions（數(shù)量詞，代詞，介詞，連詞） : one, ten, hundred, I, you, your, who, in, out, under, and, but, till, as. 2. Stability.（穩(wěn)定性） Words of the basic word stock have been in use for centuries, e.g. man, fire, mountain, water, sun, moon. As they denote the commonest things necessary to life, they are likely to remain unchanged. Actually, the basic word stock has been undergoing some changes. Words like arrow, bow, have now moved out of the word stock whereas such words as electricity, machine, car, plane, computer, radio, television, which denote new things and modern way of life, have entered the stock. There are many more words joining in than dropping out.（易出單項選擇題） 3. Productivity.（能產(chǎn)性） Words of the basic word stock are mostly root words or monosyllabic words. 本句翻譯：基本詞匯既是根詞又是單音節(jié)詞。 monosyllabic 單音節(jié) They can each be used alone, and at the same time can form new words with other roots and affixes, e.g. foot: footage, football, footpath, footer, footfall, footed, footloose, footling, footman, footing, footprint and many others. 本句翻譯：根詞可以單獨在句子中運用，同時還可與其它詞根以及詞綴構(gòu)成新的單 詞。 In the same way, dog is the father of doglike, doghood, dogcart, dog-cheap, dog-ear, dog-fall, dogfight, doghole, dogpaddle, dogsleep, to name just a few. dogsleep 假寐 4. Polysemy.（多義性） Words belonging to the basic word stock often possess more than one meaning because most of them have undergone semantic changes in the course of use and become polysemous. One example will suffice for illustration. 5. Collocability.（搭配性） Many words of the basic word stock enter quite a number of set expressions, idiomatic usages, proverbial sayings and the like. 本句翻譯：基本詞匯與許多的單詞構(gòu)成固定搭配、習(xí)語以及諺語等。 Instances are numerous. Take heart for example: a change of heart； after ones heart； a heart of gold； at heart； break ones heart； cross ones heart； cry ones heart out； eat ones heart out； have ones heart in ones mouth； heart and hand； heart and soul； Ones heart sinks within one（心灰意冷） ； take something to heart； wear ones heart upon ones sleeve（心直口快） ； with all ones heart（全心全意） and so on. Of course, not all the words of the basic word stock have these characteristics. Therefore, all national character is the most important of all features that may differentiate words of common use from all others. Words, void of the stated characteristics, do not belong to the common core of the language. They include the following: 1. Terminology（術(shù)語） consists of technical terms used in particular disciplines and academic areas as in medicine: photoscanning（光掃描） , hepatitis（肝炎） , indigestion（消化不良） , penicillin（青霉素） ； in mathematics: algebra（代數(shù)） , trigonometry（三角學(xué)） , calculus（微積分） ； in music: symphony（交響樂） , orchestra（管弦樂） , sonata（清唱） , concerto（協(xié)奏曲） ； in education: audiovisual（視聽課） , megauniversity（巨型大學(xué)） , microteaching（微型教學(xué)） , etc. 本句翻譯：術(shù)語是用在特定的學(xué)科或?qū)W術(shù)領(lǐng)域的一些學(xué)術(shù)的語言。 2. Jargon （行話） refers to the specialized vocabularies by which members of particular arts, sciences, trades and professions communicate among themselves such as in business（商業(yè)領(lǐng)域） : bottom line for inescapable implication, unavoidable result, ultimate version, ballpark figures for estimate, bargaining chips for an advantage held by any of the parties in a negotiation； in horse-racing（賽馬領(lǐng)域） : hold him back for prevent a horse from winning, hold him in for force a horse to run behind at the beginning of a race so as to reserve speed for the finish； in medicine: paranoid for suspicious, worried, persona for mannerism, hypo for hypodermic syringe； in warfare（軍事領(lǐng)域） : buster for bomb（炸彈） . Generally speaking, people outside the circle have difficulty in understanding such words. 本句翻譯：行話是一些專業(yè)的詞匯，是某些特殊的 領(lǐng)域，比如藝術(shù)領(lǐng)域、科學(xué)領(lǐng)域、商業(yè)領(lǐng)域的成員之間互相交流時用到的。 ballpark figure 估計 3.Slang（俚語） （ 1 ） belongs to the sub-standard language, a category that seems to stand between the standard general words including informal ones available to everyone and in-group words like cant（ shoptalk of any sub-group） , jargon, and argot 本句翻譯：俚語屬于非基本語言，它是位于標(biāo)準(zhǔn)語和套話、行話以及黑話之間的語言。 （ 2） Certain words are labeled slang not because of their appearance or pronunciation but because of their usage. 本句翻譯：俚語之所以叫俚語并不是因為它的發(fā)音，也不是因為它的詞形，而是因為它的用法。 Dough（面團） and bread（面包 ） , for instance, are standard when they are used as food terms but slang in the sense of money. Grass and pot have standard or formal use meaning, respectively, i.e. type of plant life and cooking utensil, but slang use meaning marijuana. beaver（ girl）（海貍） , smoky（ police） , bear（ police） , catch（ talk to） , holler（ call） , Roger（ understand） , X-rays（ radar） are all slang words（ Readers Digest 1983） . The concept head can be referred to by nut, dome, upper, bean, block and so on； in the same way, the meaning of drunk can be expressed in as many terms as over three hundred such as elevated, merry, jolly, comfortable, boiled, grassy, tight, knocked out, blue-eyed, fried, paralyzed（癱瘓） , pickled（泡菜） , stiff, stunned（ Qin 1986） These examples indicate that much of the slang is created by changing or extending the meaning of existing words though some slang words are new coinages altogether.（易出單項選擇題） 本句翻譯：俚語的形成主要是由于它改變現(xiàn)存詞匯的意義而形成的。 Those who dont go to offices or seldom find themselves in formal situations, and those who spend more time with close friends than business associates and mere acquaintances, use the mostslang, because slang is colourful, blunt, expressive and impressive. 本句翻譯：俚語大部分情況下是用在非正式場景中。俚語的特點是多彩的、直接的、富于表達的、給人印象深刻的。 4. Argot（黑話） generally refers to the jargon of criminals. 本句翻譯：黑話是指犯罪分子的行話。 e.g. can-opener（ all-purpose key）（萬能鑰匙） , dip（ pick-pocket）（扒手） , persuader（ dagger）（匕首） . 5. Dialectal words（方言詞） are words used only by speakers of the dialect in question. 本句翻譯：方言詞主要是用方言來交談的人使用的詞。 For example, beauty（ AusE=excellent, great） , chook（ AusE=chicken） , cocky（ AusE=small farmer） , station（ AusE=ranch） ； auld（ ScotE=old） , bluid（ ScotE=blood ） , coo （ ScotE=cow ） ,hame（ ScotE=home ） , lough （ IrE=lake ） , bog（ IrE=swamp） . 6. Archaisms（古詞） are words or forms that were once in common use but are now restricted only to specialized or limited use. They are found mainly in older poems, legal documents and religious writing or speech. 本句翻譯：古詞現(xiàn)主要存在于古詩、法律文本、宗教的作品或演講之中。 Here are some examples: thou（ you） , ye（ plural you） , thee（ objective you） , wilt（ will） , brethren（ brother） , troth（ pledge） , therefrom（ from that or there） , wherein（ in what） . 7. Neologisms（新詞） are newly-created words or expressions, or words that have taken on new meanings. 本句翻譯：新詞是新造出的單詞或表達，或呈現(xiàn)出新意思的詞。 Here are some examples from 12,000 WORDS: microelectronics=the branch of electronics dealing with integrated circuits futurology=a study that deals with future possibilities based on current trends AIDS=acquired immune deficiency syndrome E-mail=electronic mail, the sending of messages via computer systems internet=an international computer network linking both business and private users freak out=withdraw from reality and society esp. by taking drugs. 1.5.2 Content Words and Functional Words By notion, words can be grouped into content words and functional words. Content words denote clear notions and thus are known as notionalwords. 本句翻譯：實詞表明了一些清晰的概念，所以又可將其稱為實義詞。 They include nouns（名詞） , verbs（動詞） , adjectives（形容詞） , adverbs（副詞） and numerals（數(shù)詞） , which denote objects, phenomena, action, quality, state, degree, quantity, etc. Earth, cloud, run, walk, bright, dark, never, frequently, five, December are all content words. Functional words do not have notions of their own. Therefore, they are also called empty words. As their chief function is to express the relation between notions, the relation between words as well as between sentences, they are known as formwords. 本句翻譯：功能詞本身沒有概念。因此，又可稱為虛詞。因為虛詞的主要作用是表明概念之間、詞與詞之間的關(guān)系還有句與句之間的關(guān)系，所以它們又可稱為形式詞。 Prepositions （介詞） , conjunctions （連詞） , auxiliaries（助詞） and articles（冠詞） belong to this category. Examples are on, of, upon, and, but, do（ does, did） , be（ am, are, were, is） , a, the and others. Content words, which constitute the main body of the English vocabulary, （易出單選題） 本句翻譯：實詞，它構(gòu)成英語詞匯的主體。 main body 主體 are numerous, and the number is ever growing whereas functional words, which make up a very small number of the vocabulary, remain stable. （單選題） However, functional words do far more work of expression in English on average than content words. According to Stuart Robertson, et al（ 1957） , the nine functional words, namely, and, be, have, it, of, the, to, will, you assume one fourth of the task of expression in English. This is justified by the following examples. Of the total of twenty-seven words, only nine are content words and all the rest are functional words. remain stable 保持穩(wěn)定 1 It is fun to play with children. 2 It is certain that they have forgotten the address. 3 The more I see the film, the more I like it. 1.5.3 Native Words and Borrowed Words （ 1） As far as the origins of the words are concerned, English words can be classified into native words and borrowed words. 本句翻譯：就詞匯的來源而論，英語詞匯可以分為本族語與外來語。 （ 2） Native words are words brought to Britain in the fifth century by the German tribes: the Angles, the Saxons, and the Jutes, thus known as Anglo-Saxon words. 本句翻譯：所謂的本族語詞匯是公元五世紀(jì)由日曼部落，即盎格魯人、撒克遜人和朱特人帶到不列顛的詞匯，所以也被稱為盎格魯撒克遜詞匯。 （ 3） Words of Anglo-Saxon origin are small in number, amounting to roughly 50,000 to 60,000, but they form the mainstream of the basic word stock and stand at the core of the language. 本句翻譯：盎格魯撒克遜語當(dāng)時詞匯量很少，大約只有 5、 6 萬，但是它們構(gòu)成了基本詞匯的主流，在語言中處于核心地位。 本 族 語 詞 匯 定 義 的 三 個 方 面 ： time； name （ Anglo-Saxon words） ； mainstream Therefore, what is true of the basic word stock is also true of native words. A part from the characteristics mentioned of the basic word stock, in contrast to borrowed words, native words have two other features:（重點） 1. Neutral in style（文體是中性的） . （ 1） Since native words denote the commonest things in human society, they are used by all people, in all places, on all occasions, and at all times. （ 2） Therefore, they are not stylistically specific. This can be illustrated by a comparison between synonyms. begin（ E） commence（ F） brotherly（ E） fraternal（ F） kingly（ E） royal（ F） regal（ L） rise（ E） mount（ F） ascend（ L） （ 3） Words marked E are native words and the rest are all borrowed. Stylistically, natives words are neither formal nor informal whereas the words borrowed from French or Latin are literary and learned, thus appropriate in formal style. 本句翻譯：從文體上說，本族語詞匯既沒有正式也沒有非正式的說法。而外來詞 ，比如說拉丁詞源、法語詞源的外來詞，都是一些有文學(xué)色彩的、學(xué)術(shù)性的語言，一般使用在正式場合中。 2. Frequent in use（使用上的頻繁性） . Native words are most frequently used in everyday speech and writing. The proportion of its use in relation to borrowings is perhaps just the opposite of its number. The percentage of native words in use runs usually as high as 70 to 90 percent. 本句翻譯：使用上的頻繁性是指本族語詞頻繁地在日常生活的口語和書面語中使用。與外來詞相比，本族語詞數(shù)量少，但使用頻率要比外來詞高得多。本族語詞的使用比例一般要占到 70%90%。 This figure can be verified by the following data: Author or BookNativeForeign Spenser 86% 14% Shakespeare90% 10% King James Bible 94% 6% Milton 81% 19% Addison82% 18% Swift75% 25% Pope 80% 20% Johnson 72% 28%