自考英語國家概況串講(認(rèn)真研讀必過).doc.doc

1 英語國家概況精講：第一章 英國的國土與人民 Chapter 1： Land and People 英國的國土與人民 I. Different Names for Britain and its Parts 英國的不同名稱及其各組成部分 1. Geographical names: the British Isles, Great Britain and England. 地理名稱：不列顛群島，大不列顛和英格蘭。 2. Official name: the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Ireland. 官方正式名稱：大不列顛及北愛爾蘭聯(lián)合王國。 3. The British Isles are made up of two large islands-Great Britain (the larger one) and Ireland, and hundreds of small ones. 不列顛群島由兩個(gè)大島 大不列顛島（較大的一個(gè)）和愛爾蘭島，及成千上萬個(gè)小島組成。 4. Three political divisions on the island of Great Britain: England, Scotland and Wales. 大不列顛島上有三個(gè)政治區(qū)：英格蘭、蘇格蘭和威爾士。 (1) England is in the southern part of Great Britain. It is the largest, most populous section. 英格蘭位于大不列顛島南部，是最大，人口最稠密的地區(qū)。 (2) Scotland is in the north of Great Britain. It has three natural zones (the Highlands in the north； the Central lowlands； the south Uplands) Capital: Edinburgh 蘇格蘭位于大不列顛的北部。它有三大自然區(qū)：北部高地，中部低地及南部山陵。首府：愛丁堡。 (3) Wales is in the west of Great Britain. Capital: Cardiff 威爾士位于大不列顛的西部。首府：加的夫 (4) Northern Ireland is the fourth region of the UK. Capital: Belfast. 北愛爾蘭是英國第四個(gè)區(qū)域。首府：貝爾法斯特。 5. The Commonwealth (of nations) is a free association of independent countries that were once colonies of Britain. It was founded in 1931, and has 50 member countries until 1991. 英聯(lián)邦是曾為 英國殖民地的、但現(xiàn)已獨(dú)立國家所構(gòu)成的自由聯(lián)合體。它成立于 1931 年，至 1990 年止已有 50 個(gè)成員國。 II. Geographical Features 英國的地理特征 1. Geographical position of Britain: 英國的地理位置： Britain is an island country surrounded by the sea. It lies in the North Atlantic Ocean off the north coast of Europe. It is separated from the rest of Europe by the English Channel in the south and the North Sea in the east. 英國是一個(gè)島國。它位于大西洋北部，與歐洲大陸的北海岸隔海相望。南面的英吉利海峽和東面的北海將它與歐洲其它部分隔開。 2. The north and west of Britain are mainly highlands； and the east and southeast are mostly lowlands. 英國的西部和北部主要是高地，東部和東南部主要是低地。 III. Rivers and Lakes 河流與湖泊 Ben Nevis is the highest mountain in Britain (1,343m). 本尼維斯山為英國最高峰，海拔 1,343 米。 Severn River is the longest river in Britain (338km). 塞文河是英國最長的河流。全長 338 公里。 Thames River is the second longest and most important river in Britain. (336km). 泰晤士河是英國第二大河，也是英國最重要的河。全長 336 公里。 Laugh Neigh is the largest lake in Britain which is located in Northern Ireland. (396 square kilometers). 洛尼格 湖（內(nèi)伊湖）是英國最大的湖，位于北愛爾蘭。面積為 396 平方公里。 River Clyde is the most important river in Scotland. 克萊德河是蘇格蘭最重要的河流。 Snowdonia is the highest mountain in Wales.（ 1,085m） 斯諾多尼亞是威爾士的最高點(diǎn)，海拔 1,085 米。 IV. Climate 氣候 1. Britains favorable climate 英國有利的氣候條件： Britain has a maritime climate-winters are not too cold and summers are not too hot. It has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The temperature varies within a small range. 英國屬于海洋性氣候：冬季不過于寒冷，夏季不過于炎熱。全年有穩(wěn)定可靠的降雨量，氣溫變化幅度小。 2. The factors influence the climate in Britain: 2 影響英國氣候的因素： 1） The surrounding waters tend to balance the seasonal differences by heating up the land in winter and cooling it off in summer； 環(huán)繞四周的海水。冬天，海水可使島內(nèi)氣溫升高，夏天則使氣溫降低，從而起到平衡季節(jié)溫差的作用； 2） The prevailing south-west winds or the Westerlies blow over the country all the year round bringing warm and wet air in winter and keeping the temperatures moderate； 一年四季盛行的西南風(fēng)和西風(fēng)在冬季從大西洋帶來溫暖、潮濕的空氣，使氣溫適宜； 3） The North Atlantic Drift passes the western coast of the British Isles and warms them. 北大西洋暖流經(jīng)不列顛群島西海岸，使氣候變暖。 3.Rainfall 降雨量： Britain has a steady reliable rainfall throughout the whole year. The average annual rainfall in Britain is over 1,000mm. There is a water surplus in the north and west, and a water deficit in the south and east. 英國全年降雨量穩(wěn)定，平均降雨量超過 1000 毫米。 英國北部、西部雨量過多，但是南部、東部有所缺乏。 V. The People 人口 1.population distribution 人口分布： Britain has a population of about 57 millions and it is very unevenly distributed. 90% of the population is urban and only 10% is rural. The population of Britain is made up mainly of the English (81.5%), the Scottish (9.6%), the Welsh (1.9%), the Irish (2.4%), the Northern Irish (1.8%) and other peoples (2.8%). 英國人口約 570 萬，分布極不均勻， 90%是城市人口，只有 10%是農(nóng)村人口。英國人口組成為：英格蘭人（ 81.5%），蘇格蘭人（ 9.6%），威爾士人（ 1.9%），愛爾蘭人、北愛爾蘭人和其他民族居民。 2.The difference between the ancestors of the English and Scots, Welsh and Irish: 英倫三島民族的祖先： The ancestors of the English are Anglo-Saxons, the Scots, Welsh and Irish are Celts. 英格蘭人祖先屬于盎格魯 薩克遜人，而蘇格蘭、威爾士和愛爾蘭人屬于凱爾特人。 3.The difference in character 個(gè)性差別： The Welsh are emotional and cheerful people. They are music lovers and are proud of their past. 威爾士人感情豐富，情緒高漲，熱愛音樂，為過去感到自豪。 The Scots are said to be a serious, cautious and thrifty people, and they are also hospitable, generous and friendly. 蘇格蘭人通常被認(rèn)為嚴(yán)肅、謹(jǐn)慎而且節(jié)儉，但是他們同樣也熱情、大方且友好。 The Irish are charm and vivacity. 愛爾蘭人充滿魅力，生性活潑。 4.The difference in speech between southern England and northern England: 英格蘭南方人和北方人語言上的差別： Southerners speak the type of English close to BBC English； In northern England, regional speech is usually broader than that of southern England. 南方人講的英語接近 BBC，北英格蘭人的發(fā)音通常要比南英格蘭人寬。 5.The Welsh keep their language and culture in this way: 威爾士人以這樣的方式使他們的語言 及文化保持活力。 Throughout the year they have festivals of song and dance and poetry called Eisteddfodau. The great event of the year is the National Eisteddfod. On these occasions competitions are held in Welsh poetry, music, singing and art. 一年中他們有稱之為 “藝術(shù)年會(huì) ”的唱歌、 跳舞、詩歌節(jié)。一年中最重要的節(jié)日是全國詩歌音樂比賽會(huì)。在那里會(huì)舉行威爾士詩歌、音樂、唱歌和藝術(shù)比賽。 6.The main problem in Northern Ireland: 北愛爾蘭存在的主要問題： The fight between the Protestants who are the dominant group and the Roman Catholics who are seeking more social, political and economic opportunities. 作為統(tǒng)治者的新教徒和要求更多社會(huì)、政治及經(jīng)濟(jì)權(quán)利的羅馬天主教徒之間的斗爭。 7.Immigrants: 移民： About three million have come to Britain to live and find work since World War II. 自從二戰(zhàn)以來約有三百萬人來英國生活、工作 英語國家概況精講：第二章 英國的起源 Chapter 2： The Origins of a Nation (5000BC-1066) 英國的起源（公元前 5000 年 1066 年） I. Early Settlers （ 5000BC-55BC）早期的居民（公元前 5000 年 公元前 55 年） 1 The first known settlers of Britain were the Iberians. 人們所知的英國最早居民是伊比利來人。 3 2 At about 2000 BC the Beaker Folk arrived from the areas now know as Holland and Rhineland. 約公元前 2000 年，從現(xiàn)在的荷蘭和萊茵蘭地區(qū)來了寬口陶器人。 3 The Celts began to arrive in Britain about 700 BC. 約公元前 700 年，克爾特人來到不列顛島。 4 The Celts came to Britain in three main waves. 克爾特人來到不列顛有三次高潮。 The first wave was the Gaels-came about 600 BC. 第一次高潮是約公元前 600 年蓋爾人的來臨。 The second wave was the Brythons-came about 400 BC. 第二次高潮是約公元前 400 年布立吞（不列顛）人的抵達(dá)。 The third wave was the Belgae-came about 150 BC. 第三次是約公元前 150 年比利其人的到達(dá)。 II. Roman Britain (55BC-410AD) 羅馬人統(tǒng)治時(shí)期的英國（公元前 55 年 410 年） 1. British recorded history begins with the Roman invasion. In 55BC and 54BC, Julius Caesar, a Roman general, invaded Britain twice. In AD 43, the Emperor Claudius invaded Britain successfully. For nearly 400 years, Britain was under the Roman occupation, though it was never a total occupation. 有記錄的英國歷史開始于羅馬人的入侵。公元前 55 年和 54 年，羅馬將軍朱略斯 凱撒兩次入侵英國，均未成功。直到公元 43年，克 勞鍬才成功占領(lǐng)不列顛。將近四百年里，英國人處于羅馬人的占領(lǐng)下，但這并非是完全的占領(lǐng)。 2. Romans influence on Britain. The Roman built many towns, road, baths, temples and buildings. They make good use of Britains natural resources. They also brought the new religion, Christianity, to Britain. 羅馬人 修建了許多城鎮(zhèn)網(wǎng)，道路，澡堂，廟宇和其他建筑物。他們還很好地利用了英國的自然資源。羅馬人還把基督教這門新宗教帶到不列顛。 3. Reasons for limited Roman influence on Britain. 羅馬對不列顛的影響有限的原因。 First, the Romans always treated the Britons as a subject people of slave class. Second, never during the 4 centuries did the Romans and Britons intermarry. Third, the Romans had no impact on the language or culture of ordinary Britons. 首先，羅馬人把不列顛人當(dāng)作奴隸階段的屬民來對待。其次，在四世紀(jì)對羅馬人和不列顛人通婚。最后，羅馬人也未影響普通不列顛人的語言和文化。 This is the second part of Chapter 2 (The Origins of a Nation). It introduced some important events and important people in England from 446 to 1066. These most important events are The Anglos-Saxons invasion； The Viking and Danish Invasions and The Norman Conquest. (簡要：這是第二章 “國家的起源 ”的第二部分。在這一部分里，主要是介紹了英國從公元 446 年到 1066 年所發(fā)生的重要事件及人物。這些重要事件 分別是盎格魯 撒克遜人的入侵，北歐海盜和丹麥人的入侵及諾曼征服 )。 III. The Anglo-Saxons (446-871) 盎格魯 撒克遜人（公元 446871 年） 1 Basis of Modern English race: the Anglo-Saxons. 盎格魯 薩克遜時(shí)代（奠定了英國的基礎(chǔ)） In the mid-5th century a new wave of invaders, Jutes, Saxons, and Angles came to Britain. They were three Teutonic tribes. The Jutes, who fished and farmed in Jutland, came to Britain first. A Jutish chief became the King of Kent in 449. Then the Saxons, users of the short-sword from northern Germany, established their kingdom in Essex, Sussex and Wessex from the end of the 5th century to the beginning of the 6th century. In the second half of the 6th century, the Angles, who also came from northern Germany and were to give their name to the English people, settled in East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria. These seven principal kingdoms of Kent, Essex, Sussex, Wessex, East Anglia, Mercia and Northumbria have been given the name of Heptarchy. 五世紀(jì)中葉，朱特人、撒克遜人和盎格魯人不斷入侵不列顛。這是三支日耳曼（條頓）部落。 居住在朱特蘭島（現(xiàn)丹麥南部）上從事打漁農(nóng)耕的朱特人先抵不列顛。后來從德國北部來的使用短劍的撒克遜人在埃撒克斯、蘇塞克斯和威塞克斯建立了王國，統(tǒng)治期從 五世紀(jì)末至六世紀(jì)初。六世紀(jì)后半葉，同樣來自德國北部的盎格魯人，在東盎格利亞、麥西亞以及諾森伯利來定居，同時(shí)也他們也把名字給了英國人。這七個(gè)主要王國（肯特、埃塞克斯、蘇塞克斯、威塞克斯、東盎格利亞、麥西亞和諾森伯利亞），合稱為七王國。 2 The early Anglo-Saxons converted to Christianity. 最早的盎格魯 撒克遜人改信基督教。 The Anglo-Saxons brought their own Teutonic religion to Britain. Christianity soon disappeared except among the Celts of Cornwall, 4 Wales, Scotland and Ireland. In 597, Pope Gregory I sent St. Augustine, the Prior of St. Andrews Monastery in Rome, to England to convert the heathen English to Christianity. In 579 St. Augustine became the first Archbishop of Canterbury. He was remarkably successful in converting the king and the nobility, but the conversion of the common people was largely due to the missionary activities of the monks in the north. 盎格魯 撒克遜人把日耳曼宗教帶到了英國。除了康瓦爾、威爾士、蘇格蘭和愛爾蘭中的克爾特人還信奉基督教外，基督教很快就消失了。公元 597，教皇格里高一世把羅馬圣安德魯修道院的副院長圣奧古斯丁派遣到英格蘭，其使命是使異教徒的英國人皈依基督教。公元 579 年圣奧古丁成為坎特伯雷大主教。在使國王和貴族皈依基督教方面，奧古斯丁特別成功。但是普通人的皈依很大程度上歸功于北部修士們的傳教活動(dòng)。 3 The Early Anglo-Saxons make the contributions to the English state. 早期盎格魯 撒克遜人為英國做出的貢獻(xiàn)。 The Anglo-Saxons laid the foundations of the English state. Firstly, they divided the country into shires, with shire courts and shire reeves, or sheriffs, responsible for administering law. Secondly, they devised the narrow-strip, three-field farming system which continued to the 18th century. Thirdly, they also established the manorial system. Finally, they created the Witan（ council or meeting of the wisemen） to advise the king, the basis of the Privy Council which still exists today. 盎格魯 撒克遜人為英國國家的形成打下了基礎(chǔ)。首先，他們把國家劃分為郡，郡法庭和郡法官、或行政司法長官負(fù)責(zé)執(zhí)法。其次，他們設(shè)計(jì)的窄條三圃田農(nóng)耕制延用至 18 世紀(jì)。此外，他們還建立了領(lǐng)地制。最后，他們還創(chuàng)立了議會(huì) (賢人會(huì)議 )，向國王提供建議，這就成為了今天仍存在的樞密院的基礎(chǔ)。 IV Viking and Danish invasions 北歐海盜和丹麥人的入侵 1 The invaders were the Norwegians and the Danes. They attacked various parts of England from the end of the 8th century. They became a serious problem in the 9th century, especially between 835 and 878. They even managed to capture York, an important center of Christianity in 867. By the middle of 9th century, the Viking and the Danes were posing a threat to the Saxon kingdom of Wessex. 入侵者是挪威人和丹麥人，從 8 世紀(jì)末開始，他們不斷襲擊英格蘭的各個(gè)地方。 9 世紀(jì)，尤其是公元 835-878 年間已成為嚴(yán)重問題。他們甚至占領(lǐng)了約克郡，公元 867 年時(shí)的基督教中心。到 9 世紀(jì)中葉，北歐海盜和丹麥人威脅到撒克遜人的威撒克斯王國的安全。 2 King Alfred (849-899) and his contributions 艾爾弗雷德國王（ 849-899）和他所做出的貢獻(xiàn) Alfred was a king of Wessex. He defeated the Danes and reached a friendly agreement with them in 879. The Danes gained control of the north and east, while he ruled the rest. He also converted some leading Danes into Christians. He founded a strong fleet and is known as “the father of the British navy”. He reorganized the Saxon army, making it more efficient. He translated a Latin book into English. He also established schools and formulated a legal system. All this earns him the title “Alfred the Great.” 阿爾弗雷德是威塞克斯的國王。他打敗了丹麥人，并于公元 879 年與他們達(dá)成了友好協(xié)議。協(xié)議規(guī)定丹麥人控制英格蘭北部和西部（丹麥法區(qū)），而他統(tǒng)治其他地區(qū)。他還勸服一些丹麥?zhǔn)最I(lǐng)成為基督教徒。 他因?yàn)榻⒘藦?qiáng)大艦隊(duì)，而以 “英國海軍之父 ”聞名于世。他改組了 “弗立德 ”（撒克遜軍隊(duì)），使之更為高效。他將一本拉丁語的書翻譯成英語。同時(shí)他還建立了學(xué)校，并且闡明了法律制度。所有這一切使他當(dāng)之無愧于 “阿爾弗雷德大王。 ”的稱號。 V The Norman Conquest (1066) 諾曼征服（公元 1066 年） 1. Reasons for Williams invasion of England after Edwards death. 威廉在愛德華死后入侵英國的原因。 It was said that king Edward had promised the English throne to William, but the Witan chose Harold as king. So William led his army to invade England. In October 1066, during the important battle of Hastings, William defeated Harold and killed him. One Christmas Day, William was crowned king of England, thus beginning the Norman Conquest of England. 據(jù)說，愛德華國王曾答應(yīng)把英格蘭王位傳給諾曼底公爵威廉，但是賢人會(huì)議挑選了哈羅德為國王。公元 1066 年 10 月，在哈斯丁斯附近的激烈交鋒中，威廉打敗了哈羅德軍隊(duì)，同時(shí)哈羅 德也在此戰(zhàn)爭中戰(zhàn)死。 2 The Norman Conquest and its consequences 諾曼征服及其產(chǎn)生的影響。 The Norman Conquest of 1066 is perhaps the best-known event in English history. William the Conqueror confiscated almost all the land and gave it to his Norman followers. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. He replaced the weak Saxon rule with a strong Norman government. So the feudal system was completely established in England. Relations with the Continent were opened, and the civilization and commerce were extended. Norman-French culture, language, manners and architecture were introduced. The Church was brought into closer connection with Rome, and the church courts were separated from the civil courts. 5 1066 年的諾曼征服也許是英國歷史上的最著名事件。征服者威廉幾乎沒收了所有土地，將其分發(fā)給他的諾曼追隨者。他用強(qiáng)有力的諾曼政府代替了軟弱的薩克遜政府。于是，封建制度在英國完全建立。開放了與歐洲大陸的關(guān)系，文明和商業(yè)得到發(fā)展，引進(jìn)了諾曼 法國文化、語言、舉止和建筑。教會(huì)與羅馬的聯(lián)系更為密切，教會(huì)法庭與世俗法庭分離。 3 The English is a mixture of nationalities of different origins. The ancestors of many English people were the ancient Angles and Saxons. Some English people are of the Norman-French origin. 英國是一個(gè)集不同民族于一體的國家。許多英國人的祖先是古盎格魯和撒克遜人。而還有一些英國人的是諾曼血統(tǒng)。 英語國家概況精講：第三章 英國的形成 Chapter 3： The Shaping of the Nation (1066-1381) 英國的形成（公元 1066-1381） I. Norman Rule (1066-1381) 諾曼統(tǒng)治（公元 1066-1381） 1. Williams Rule （ 1066-1087） 威廉一世的統(tǒng)治（公元 1066-1087） Englands feudalism under the rule of William the Conqueror 在威廉統(tǒng)治下的英國封建制度 Under William, the feudal system in England was completely established. According to this system, the King owned all the land personally. William gave his barons large estates in England in return for a promise of military service and a proportion of the lands produce. These estates were scattered far and wide over the country, so that those who held them could not easily combine to rebel the king. The barons, who had become Williams tenants-in-chief, parceled out land to the lesser nobles, knights and freemen, also in return for goods and services. At the bottom of the feudal scale were the villeins or serfs. One peculiar feature of the feudal system of England was that all landowners must take the oath of allegiance， not only to their immediate lord, but also to the king. 在威廉統(tǒng)治下，英國的封建制度得到完全確立。 根據(jù)此制度，國王擁有全國所有土地。 威廉把英國的大片土地分給貴族，條件是換取對方服役和收租。 這些地產(chǎn)分散于各處，這樣土地?fù)碛姓呔筒灰茁?lián)合起來反叛國王。 已成為國王土地承租人的貴族又把土地分配給小貴族、騎士和自由民，同樣換取貨物和服役。 在封建等級底層的是農(nóng)奴。 英國封建制獨(dú)有的特色就是，無論是土地承租人還是二佃戶，都必須要宣誓效忠于直接領(lǐng)主，而且要效忠于國王。 2. King Henry II and his reforms 亨利二世國王和他的改革 The ways King Henry II consolidate the monarchy. 亨利二世鞏固君主制的途徑。 Henry II took some measures to consolidate the monarchy. He forced the Flemish mercenaries to leave England； recalled grants of Royal lands made by his previous king Stephen； demolished many castles built in Stephens time； strengthened and widened the powers of his sheriffs and relied for armed support upon a militia composed of English freemen. 亨利二世采取了一些措施鞏固君主制。他迫使弗蘭德斯雇傭軍離開英國，收回史蒂芬森贈(zèng)出皇室土地；拆除幾十座史蒂芬森時(shí)造德城堡，加強(qiáng)并擴(kuò)大 了他的行政長官們的權(quán)力，依靠由英國自由民組成的民兵獲取軍事支持。 The ways Henry II reform the courts and the law. 亨利二世對法院及法律進(jìn)行改革的方式。 King Henry II greatly strengthened the Court and extended its judicial work. He divided the whole country into six circuits and appointed justices to each. Cases were therefore heard before the intermittent justices who applied the law impartially. During his reign, a common law was gradually established in place of the previous laws of the local barons. He also introduced a new jury system to replace the old ordeal-based trial system. Besides, he shifted the trial of clergymen charged with criminal offenses from the Bishops court to the Kings court. 亨利二世大大加強(qiáng)了王家法院，擴(kuò)展了其司法工作的職權(quán)范圍。他將全國分為六個(gè)審制區(qū)。案件更多地由巡回法官審理，并不偏不倚地使用法律。在他統(tǒng)治時(shí)期，逐漸建立起超越地方領(lǐng)主法律的普遍法。另外，他用陪審員制度代替了舊的殘酷的審判制度。他堅(jiān)持被控犯有刑事罪的神職人員應(yīng)由國王法庭審判，而不由主教法庭審判。 II Contents and the significance of the Great Charter 大憲章的內(nèi)容及意義 Great Charter was signed by King John in 1215 under the press of the barons. It consists of sixty-three clauses. Its important provisions are as follows: (1) no tax should be made without the approval of the Grand Council； (2) no freemen should be arrested, imprisoned or deprived of their property； (3) the Church should possess all its rights, together with freedom of elections； (4) London and other towns should retain their traditional rights and privileges, and (5) there should be the same weights and measures throughout the country. Although The Great Charter has long been popularly regarded as the foundation of English liberties, it was a statement of the feudal and legal relationships between the Crown and the barons, a guarantee of the freedom of the Church and a limitation of the powers of the king. 6 The spirit of the Great Charter was the limitation of the powers of the king, keeping them within the bounds of the feudal law of the land. 大憲章是約翰國王 1215 年在封建貴族壓力下簽定的。大憲章總共 63 條，其中最重要的內(nèi)容是： (1) 未經(jīng)大議會(huì)同意，不得征稅； (2) 只有根據(jù)國家有關(guān)法律才能逮捕、監(jiān)禁自由人以及剝奪他們的財(cái)產(chǎn)； (3)教會(huì)應(yīng)享受其所有權(quán)利且有選舉自由；（ 4） 倫敦和其它城鎮(zhèn)應(yīng)保留其古時(shí)的權(quán)力和特權(quán)； (5) 全國要使用統(tǒng)一的重量和長度度量衡。盡管人們普遍認(rèn)為大憲章為英國的自由奠定了基礎(chǔ)，但該憲章只是規(guī)定國王和貴族之間封建關(guān)系和法律關(guān)系的文件，保證了教會(huì)的自由，限制了國王權(quán)利。大憲章的精神是限制國王權(quán)力，使其在英國封 建法律允許的范圍內(nèi)活動(dòng)。 III.The origins of the English Parliament 英國議會(huì)的起源 The Great Council is known to be the prototype of the current British Parliament. In 1265, Simon de Montfort summoned the Great Council, together with two knights from each county and two citizens from each town. It later developed into the House of Lords and the House of Commons. Its main role was to offer advice. There were no elections or parties. And the most important part of Parliament was the House of Lords. 大議會(huì)是當(dāng)今英國議會(huì)的原型。 1265 年，西門德孟福爾召開大議 會(huì)，各縣有兩名騎士，各鎮(zhèn)有兩名市民參加。大議會(huì)發(fā)展到后來演變成議會(huì)，分為上議院和下議院。其作用是咨詢而非決定；也沒有選舉和政黨。議會(huì)的最重要的部分是上議院。 IV. The Hundred Years War and its consequences. 百年戰(zhàn)爭及其結(jié)果 The Hundred Years War refers to the war between England and France that lasted intermittently from 1337 to 1453. The causes of the war were partly territorial and partly economic. The territorial causes were related with the possession by the English kings of the large duchy in France, while the French kings coveted this large slice. The economic causes were connected with cloth manufacturing towns in Flanders, which were the importer of English wool, but they were loyal to the French king politically. Besides, Englands desire to stop France from giving aid to Scots and a growing sense of nationalism were the other causes. The Englishs being driven out of France is regarded as a blessing for both countries. If the English had remained in France, the superior size and wealth of France would have hindered the development of a separate English national identity, while France was hindered so long as a foreign power occupied so much French territory. 百年戰(zhàn)爭指 1337 年到 1453 年英法之間一場斷斷續(xù)續(xù)的戰(zhàn)爭，戰(zhàn)爭的起因既有領(lǐng)土因素又有經(jīng)濟(jì)因素。領(lǐng)土 起因尤其是與英國國王擁有法國的阿基坦大片公爵領(lǐng)地有密切關(guān)系，隨著法國國王勢力日增，他們渴望占領(lǐng)這片在他們領(lǐng)土內(nèi)的土地。經(jīng)濟(jì)原因則與弗蘭德斯有關(guān)。弗蘭德斯地區(qū)生產(chǎn)棉布的城鎮(zhèn)是英國羊毛的主要進(jìn)口商，但這些城鎮(zhèn)在政治上卻效忠法國國王。其他原因還有英國試圖阻止法國幫助蘇格蘭人，以及不斷覺醒的民族意識(shí)。 戰(zhàn)爭的結(jié)果：把英國人趕出法國對兩個(gè)國家都是幸事： 英 國車人繼續(xù)留在法國，那么法國人在領(lǐng)土和財(cái)富上所占的優(yōu)勢必然會(huì)阻礙分離的英國民族的發(fā)展；而法國民族被外國勢力占領(lǐng)了眾多的領(lǐng)土，發(fā)展更是長期受阻。 V. The Black Death 黑死病 The Black Death is the modern name given to the deadly epidemic disease spread by rat fleas across Europe in the 14th century. It swept through England in the summer of 1348. It reduced Englands population from four million to two million by the end of the 14th century. The economic consequences of the Black Death were far-reaching. As a result of the plague, much land was left untended and there was a terrible shortage of labour. The surviving peasants had better bargaining power and were in a position to change their serfdom into paid labour. Some landlords, unable or unwilling to pay higher wages, tried to force peasants back into serfdom. In 1351 the government issued a Statute of Labours which made it a crime for peasants to ask for more wages or for their employers to pay more than the rates laid down by the Justices of the Peace. 黑死病是指由鼠疫蚤傳播的致命的淋巴腺鼠疫，是一種流行疾病，在 14 世紀(jì)傳播了到歐洲。 1348 年夏天橫掃全英國。英國的人口在 14 世紀(jì)末從 400 萬銳減至 200 萬。 黑死病對經(jīng)濟(jì)造成的后果更為深遠(yuǎn)。鼠疫導(dǎo)致了大片土地?zé)o人照管和勞動(dòng)力極度匱乏。地主想把耕地變?yōu)槿肆π枨筝^少的牧場。存活的農(nóng)民處于有利的計(jì)價(jià)還價(jià)地位，從農(nóng)奴變?yōu)楣蛡騽趧?dòng) 力。于是一些支付不起或不愿意支付較高工資的地主想方設(shè)法迫使農(nóng)民重返農(nóng)奴地位。 1351 年政府頒布 “勞工法令 ”，規(guī)定農(nóng)民們漲工資的要求，或者是雇主支付比地方官制訂的工資水平要高的工資都是犯罪。 VI. The Peasant Uprising of 1381 and its significance 1381 年農(nóng)民起義及其意義 Armed villagers and townsmen of Kent and Essex, led by Watt Tyler and Jack Straw, moved on London in June, 1381. The king was forced to accept their demands. Most of the rebels dispersed and went home, while Tyler and other leaders stayed on for more rights. Tyler was killed at a meeting with the king. The uprising was brutally suppressed, but it had far-reaching significance in English history. First, it directed against the rich clergy, 7 lawyers and the landowners. Second, it dealt a telling blow to villeinage, and third, a new class of yeomen farmers emerged, paving the way to the development of capitalism. 1381 年 6 月，在瓦特 泰勒和杰克斯特勞領(lǐng)導(dǎo)下，凱特郡和埃塞克斯郡的農(nóng)民和市民武裝起來發(fā)動(dòng)起義，并向倫敦進(jìn)發(fā)。國王被迫接受了他們的要求。大多數(shù)起義農(nóng)民解散回家，但泰勒和其他堅(jiān)決的農(nóng)民留下來要求得到更多的法律、宗教和政治權(quán)利。泰勒在又一次與國王的會(huì)見中被殺死。 盡管起義被血腥鎮(zhèn)壓，但在英國歷史上留下了深遠(yuǎn)的影響。這次起義具有真實(shí)的社會(huì)性，把矛頭直接對準(zhǔn)了富有的教職人員、律師和地主。這次起義沉重打擊了封建農(nóng)奴制度，產(chǎn)生了全新的自耕農(nóng)階級，為資本主義發(fā)展鋪設(shè)了道路。 英語國家概況精講：第四章 向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡 Chapter 4： Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1688) 向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡 I. Transition to the Modern Age (1455-1485) 向現(xiàn)代英國的過渡 (1455 年 -1485 年 ) The Wars of Rose 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭 The name Wars of the Roses was refer to the battles between the House of Lancaster, symbolized by the read rose, and that of York, symbolized by the white, from 1455 to 1485. Henry Tudor, descendant of Duke of Lancaster won victory at Bosworth Fireld in 1485 and put ht country under the rule of the Tudors. From these Wars, English feudalism received its death blow. The great medieval nobility was much weakened. 玫瑰戰(zhàn)爭是指，從 1455 年到 1485 年，以紅玫瑰為象征的蘭開斯特大家族和以白玫瑰為象征的約克家族之間戰(zhàn)爭的普遍接受的名稱。 1485 年，蘭開斯特家族的后代亨利都鐸取得了博斯沃恩戰(zhàn)役的勝利，建立了都鐸王朝。這些戰(zhàn)爭使英國的封建主義受到致命打擊，貴族階層受到了削弱。 II. The English Reformation 英國的宗教改革 Henry VIII was above all responsible for the religious reform of the church. There were three main causes: a desire for change and reform in the church had been growing for many years and now, encouraged by the success of Martin Luther, many people believed its time had come； the privilege and wealth of the clergy were resented； and Henry needed money. 最重要的是，亨利八世負(fù)責(zé)進(jìn)行教會(huì)的宗教改革。改革原因有三個(gè)主要方面：改革教會(huì)的渴望已有多年，現(xiàn)在又受馬丁路德 成功的鼓舞，許多人認(rèn)為時(shí)機(jī)已到；人們痛恨教職人員的威望和財(cái)富；亨利需要錢。 The reform began as a struggle for a divorce and ended in freedom from the Papacy. Henry VIII wanted to divorce Catherine of Aragon but the Pope refused. Henrys reforms was to get rid of the English Churchs connection with the Pope, and to make an independent Church of England. He made this break with Rome gradually between 1529 and 1534. He dissolved all of Englands monasteries and nunneries because they were more loyal to the Pope than to their English kings. The laws such as the Act of succession of 1534 and the Act of Supremacy of 1535 made his reform possible. He established the church of England as the national church of the country, and he made himself the supreme head of the church of England. 改革以爭取離婚而開始，以脫離教皇而告終。亨利八世欲與阿拉貢的凱瑟琳離婚，但是教皇拒絕了。亨利改革的目的是擺脫英國教會(huì)與教皇的聯(lián)系，成立獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會(huì)。 1529 年至 1534 年間逐漸地與羅馬脫離了關(guān)系。他解散了所有英國的修道院和修女院，因?yàn)楹笳邔袒时葘τ鴩醺艺\。 1534 年的繼位法和 1535 年的至尊法案使改革具有了可行性。 1535 年他獲 “英格蘭教會(huì)最高首腦 ”之稱號。 Henry VIIIs reform stressed the power of the monarch and certainly strengthened Henrys position； Parliament had never done such a long and important piece of work before, its importance grew as a result. His attack on the Popes power encouraged many critics of abuses of the Catholic Church. England was moving away form Catholicism towards protestaintism. 改革的三大影響：亨利的改革強(qiáng)調(diào)了君主權(quán)力，自然加強(qiáng)了亨利的地位；議會(huì)以往從未做過如此漫長而重要的工作，自然其重要性也有所加強(qiáng)；他對教皇權(quán)力的打擊鼓舞許多人批評指責(zé)天主教會(huì)，并希望從天主教轉(zhuǎn)向新教。 III. Elizabeth I (1558-1603) 伊莉莎白一世（ 1558 年 -1603 年） Elizabeths religious reform and her foreign policy 伊莉莎白的宗教改革和外交政策 Elizabeths religious reform was a compromise of views. She broke Marys ties with Rome and restored her fathers independent Church of England, i.e. keeping to Catholic doctrines and practices but to be free of the Papal control. He religious settlement was unacceptable to both the extreme Protestants known as Puritans and to ardent Catholics. For nearly 30 years Elizabeth successfully played off against each other the two great Catholic powers, France and Spain, and prevented 8 England from getting involved in any major European conflict. Through her marriage alliances which were never materialized, Elizabeth managed to maintain a friendly relationship with France, so England wad able to face the danger from Spain. 伊莉莎白的宗教改革是各種觀點(diǎn)的妥協(xié)。她中斷瑪麗與羅馬的關(guān)系，恢復(fù)父王獨(dú)立的英格蘭教會(huì)，也就是說保持天主教教條及習(xí)俗，但不受教皇控制。她的宗教和解既不被極端的新教徒（即清 教徒）所接受，也不為虔誠的天主教徒所接受。 近 30 年的時(shí)間，伊莉莎白成功地令兩大天主教強(qiáng)國法國和西班牙互相斗殺，從而免于英國卷入任何主要的歐洲國的沖突。通過她從未具體化的聯(lián)姻，伊莉莎白設(shè)法與法國維持友好關(guān)系，因此英國能面對來自西班牙的危險(xiǎn)。 IV. The English Renaissance 英國文藝復(fù)興 Distinctive features of the English Renaissance 英國文藝復(fù)興的特點(diǎn) 1) English culture was revitalized not so much directly by the classics as by contemporary Europeans under the influence of the classics； 2) England as an insular country followed a course of social and political history which was to a great extent independent of the course of history elsewhere in Europe； 3) Owing to the great genius of the 14th century poet Chaucer, the native literature was sufficiently vigorous and experienced in assimilating for foreign influences without being subjected by them； 4) English Renaissance coincided with the Reformation in England. 英國文藝復(fù)興的五個(gè)特點(diǎn)： 1）英國文化的復(fù)興并不是直接通過古典作品，崦是通過受古典作品影響同時(shí)代的歐洲人實(shí)現(xiàn)的； 2）英格蘭作為一個(gè)與大陸隔離的國家，其社會(huì)歷史進(jìn)程很大程度上獨(dú)立于歐洲其它國家； 3）由于 14 世紀(jì)偉大的天才詩人喬叟的出現(xiàn)，英國本國文學(xué)得以蓬勃發(fā)展，能夠在吸收外國文學(xué)影響的同時(shí)，并未處于從屬地位； 4）英國文藝復(fù)興文學(xué)首先是藝術(shù)的，其次才是哲學(xué)的和學(xué)術(shù)的； 5）文藝復(fù)興和英格蘭的宗教改革在時(shí)間上有所交叉。 VI. The Civil Wars and their consequences 內(nèi)戰(zhàn) Because of the absolute rule of Charles, the confrontation between Charles I and the parliament developed into the civil war. The war began on August 22, 1642 and ended in 1651. Charles I was condemned to death. The English Civil War is also called the Puritan Revolution. It has been seen as a conflict between the parliament and the King, and a conflict between economic interests of the Crown. The economic interests of the urban middle classed coincided with their religious (Puritan) ideology while the Crowns traditional economic interests correspondingly allied with Anglican religious belief. The English Civil War not only overthrew feudal system in England but also shook the foundation of the feudal rule in Europe. It is generally regarded as the beginning of modern world history. 由于查爾斯的 “君權(quán)神授 ”統(tǒng)治權(quán)，他與議會(huì)的對質(zhì)發(fā)展成了內(nèi)戰(zhàn)。戰(zhàn)爭開始于 1642 年 8 月 22 日，結(jié)束于 1651 年。最后查爾斯被處死。 英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)又稱為清教徒革命。這是議會(huì)和國王間的 沖突，也是城市中產(chǎn)階級的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益與皇室傳統(tǒng)經(jīng)濟(jì)利益之間的沖突。城市中產(chǎn)階級經(jīng)濟(jì)利益剛好與他們的宗教（清教）思想吻合，相應(yīng)地，皇室傳統(tǒng)的經(jīng)濟(jì)利益則與圣公會(huì)教的宗教信仰相結(jié)合在一起。英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)不僅推翻了英國的封建制度，而且動(dòng)搖了歐洲封建經(jīng)濟(jì)的基礎(chǔ)。英國內(nèi)戰(zhàn)通常被看作是現(xiàn)代世界史的開端。 The Restoration 王政復(fù)辟 When Oliver Cromwell died in 1658 and was succeeded by his son, Richard, the regime began to collapse. One of Cromwells generals George Monk, occupied London and arranged for new parliamentary elections. The Parliament thus was elected in 1660 resolved the crisis by asking the late Kings son to return from his exile in France as king Charles II. It was called the Restoration. 1658 年奧利弗克倫威爾去世，他的兒子理查德繼任護(hù)國公，政權(quán)立即開始瓦解?？藗愅柕囊晃粚④妴讨蚊煽苏碱I(lǐng)倫敦，安排新的議會(huì)選舉。 1660 年選出的議會(huì)要求上一任國王的兒子長期流亡地法國回國作國王查爾斯二世，從而解決了危機(jī)。這就是所謂的王政復(fù)辟。 The Glorious Revolution of 1688 1688 年光榮革命 In 1685 Charles II died and was succeeded by his brother James II. James was brought up in exile in Europe was a Catholic. He hoped to rule without giving up his personal religious vies. But England was no more tolerant of a Catholic king in 1688 than 40 years ago. So the English politicians rejected James II, and appealed to a Protestant king, William of Orange, to invade and take the English throne. William landed in England in 1688. The takeover was relatively smooth, with no bloodshed, nor any execution of the king. This was known as the Glorious Revolution. 1685 年查爾斯二世去世，由其弟詹姆斯二世繼位。詹姆斯二世從小在歐洲流亡長大，是個(gè)天主教徒，他希望不放棄個(gè)人宗教信仰統(tǒng)治國家。但是 1688 的英國已不象 40 年前那樣能容忍天主教徒當(dāng)國王了。英國政客反對詹姆斯二世，他們呼吁信奉新教 9 的國王，奧蘭治親王威謙入侵英國奪取王位。 1688 年 11 月 15 日威廉在托爾比登陸并占領(lǐng)倫敦。這一占領(lǐng)相對平靜，既未流血也未處死國王，所以就稱為 “光榮革命 ”。 The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 1605 年 The Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was the most famous of th