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1、電大無機及分析化學期末考試試題及答案一、判斷題 (每小題1分 共10分 ) 1鍵和鍵在分子中均可單獨存在。 ( )2系統(tǒng)誤差是不可測的。 ( )3極性分子間僅存在取向力,非極性分子間只存在色散力。 ( )4等價軌道處于全充滿、全空、半充滿狀態(tài)時原子能量較低。 ( )5施肥過多造成的“燒苗”現(xiàn)象,是由于植物細胞液的滲透壓小于土壤溶液的滲透壓引起的。 ( )6醋酸溶液經(jīng)稀釋后其解離度增大,因而可使其H+ 濃度增大。 ( )7BF3和NH3都具有平面三角形的空間結構。 ( )8CO2與CH4的偶極矩均為零。 ( )9共價鍵和氫鍵均有飽和性與方向性。 ( )10在消除了系統(tǒng)誤差之后,測定結果的精密度越
2、高,準確度也越高。 ( )選擇題 ( 每小題2分,共30分 )1質量摩爾濃度的單位是( )。 A. mol·L-1 B. mol·kg-1 C. g·L-1 D. mg·g-12已知反應H2(g)S(s)H2S(g)和S(s)O2(g) SO2(g)的平衡常數(shù)為Ky1和Ky2,則反應: H2(g)SO2(g)H2S(g)O2(g)的平衡常數(shù)為( )。 A. Ky1Ky2 B. Ky1/Ky2 C. Ky1×Ky2 &
3、#160; D. Ky1-Ky2 3下列量子數(shù)取值錯誤的是( )。 A. 3,2,2,+y B. 2,2,0,-y C. 3,2,1,+y D. 4,1,0,-y4主量子數(shù)n=3的電子層可容納的軌道數(shù)和電子數(shù)為( )。A. 3和6 B. 3和9 C. 6和12 D. 9和18 5下列鹵化氫分子極性由大到小的順序正確的是( )。A. HCl>HBr> HI >HF
4、 B. HI>HBr>HCl>HFC. HF> HI> HBr> HCl D. HF> HCl> HBr> HI6Fe3O4中鐵的氧化數(shù)是( )。 A. 2 B. -2 C. 8/3 D. 37下列關于分子間力的說法正確的是( )。A. 分子型物質的沸點總是隨相對分子質量的增大而增加 B. 色散力存在于所有分子間C. 極性分子間僅存在取向力 D. 大多數(shù)含氫化合物中都存在氫鍵8能組成緩沖溶液的是( )。A. HAc-NaA
5、c B. NaCl-HCl C. NaOH-NaCl D. HCl-H2O 9定量分析工作要求測定結果的誤差( )。A. 在允許誤差范圍之內 B. 等于零 C. 略大于允許誤差 D. 沒有要求 10下列各式中,有效數(shù)字位數(shù)正確的是( )。A. 0.0978(4位) B. pH=3.24 (3位) C. pKa=1.80 (2位) D. 0.420(2位)11隨機誤差可通過( )方法減免。A. 對照試驗 B. 校正儀器 C. 空白試驗 D. 適當增加平行測定次數(shù)12在Cu(NH3)42+配離子中,中心離子的配位數(shù)為( )。A. 3 B. 4 C. 5 D. 613在NH4+ + OH- NH3&
6、#160; + H2O體系中,屬于質子酸的物質是( )。A. NH3與H3O+ B. OH-與NH4+C. NH4+與H2O D. OH-與NH314從錳在酸性溶液中的元素電勢圖可以看出,在酸性介質中會發(fā)生歧化反應的物質是( )。A. MnO4- B. MnO42- C. MnO2 D. Mn2+15EDTA準確直接滴定單一金屬離子M的條件是( )。A. lgKfy8 B. lgcM·Kfy6C. lgcM+lgKfy6 D. lgcM+lgKfy6 三、填空題 ( 共 25分 )1命名Cr(NH3)4Cl2NO
7、3為 ,中心離子為 ,配位原子為 ,配位數(shù)為 ,配體包括 。2在含有AgCl(s mol·L-1 的 AgNO3 , AgCl的溶解度將_,這是由于_的結果。3NH3分子中N的雜化方式為 雜化,空間構型為 。BCl3分子中B的雜化方式為 雜化,空間構型為 。4原電池中,發(fā)生還原反應的電極為_極,發(fā)生氧化反應的電極為_極。5常用于標定HCl溶液的基準物質有 、 常用于標定NaOH溶液的基準物質有 、 。 624號元素的核外電子排布為 它位于元素周期表第 周期 族 區(qū)。7核外電子排布的三規(guī)則是 、 、 。四、計算題 (共 35分 )1(6分)取萘溶于100g苯中,測得該溶液的凝固點降低,
8、求萘的摩爾質量(苯的凝固點下降常數(shù)為Kf 5.12 K·kg·mol-1)。2(6分)測定某蛋白質質量分數(shù)七次,數(shù)據(jù)為:79.58,79.45,79.47,79.50,79.62, 79.38, 79.80。求平均值、平均偏差、相對平均偏差、標準偏差、相對標準偏差、極差。3有一含有Na2CO3和NaOH的混合物,稱取試樣0.5895 g溶于水,用0.3000 mol·L-1 HCl標準溶液滴定至酚酞變色,消耗HCl 24.08mL,加入甲基橙,繼續(xù)用上述HCl標準溶液滴定,又消耗HCl 12.02mL,計算試樣中Na2CO3和NaOH的質量分數(shù)。M(Na2CO3)
9、=·mol-1,M(NaOH)= g·mol-1。(8分)4,需要在1L mol·L-1L的NH3·H2O中加入多少克NH4Cl(設體積不變)。(NH3)=1.8×10-5,M(NH4Cl) = g·mol-1(8分)5y(Ag+ V, 向電極中加入KBr 使AgBr 沉淀達到溶解平衡時,且c(Br-)=1.0 mol·L-1,求(Ag+/Ag) 已知 Kspy (AgBr) = 7.7×10-13)。(7分)習題答案一、判斷題1×;2×;3× ;4 ;5× ; 6×
10、; ;7× ;8;9;10二、選擇題1B;2B;3B;4D;5D;6C;7B;8A;9A 10C ;11D ;12B;13C;14B;15C 三、填空題 1硝酸二氯四氨合鉻(III); Cr3+; N, Cl; 6; NH3, Cl-2減?。?同離子效應3sp3不等性; 三角錐形; sp2; 平面三角形4正; 負5Na2CO3; Na2B4O7·10H2O; H2C2O4·2H2O; KHC8H4O4624Cr:1s22s22p63s23p63d54s1; 4; VIB; d區(qū) 7泡利不相容原理; 能量最低原理; 洪特規(guī)則四、計算題1解: 苯的凝固點降低常數(shù)為Kf
11、 5.12 K·kg·mol11.07K 5.12 K·kg·mol-1× M127.8 g·mol-1解:平均值(79.58+ 79.45+79.47+79.50 +79.62+79.38+79.80)÷7 79.54%平均偏差0.11%相對平均偏差0.14%標準偏差0.14%相對標準偏差0.18%極差79.8079.380.42解:=24.55%=%4解:根據(jù)pH=lg所以9.5= =14 =14 4.74 故x=(7分)5解: Ag+ + e- Ag jy (Ag+/Ag) Ag+ + Br- AgBr Ksp = 7
12、.7×10-13 c (Ag+) = Ksp/c (Br-) = 7.7×10-13 g·mol-1j(Ag+/Ag) = jy (Ag+/Ag2lgc (Ag+) = 0.799 V23V 西北農(nóng)林科技大學本科課程考試試題一、單項選擇題(每小題1.5分,共30分) 得分: 分1有三種非電解質的稀溶液(都為水溶液),它們的沸點順序為C>B>A,則它們的蒸氣壓曲線為( )。A B C D2CaO(s)+H2O(l)9 Ca(OH)2(s),在25ºC及標準狀態(tài)下反應自發(fā)進行,高溫時其逆反應為自發(fā),這表明該反應為( )類型。 A. rHym &g
13、t; 0, rSym <0 B. rHym <0, rSym >0 C. rHym > 0, rSym >0 D. rHym <0, rSym <03在1073K下,反應2NO(g)+2H2(g)=N2(g)+2H2O(g)的反應速率如下表。 序號c(NO)/ (mol·L-1)c(H2)/( mol·L-1)v/(mol ·L-1 ·S-1)12.00×10-36.00×10-31.92×10-321.00×10-36.00×10-30.48×10-3
14、32.00×10-33.00×10-30.96×10-3該反應的速率方程為( )。A. v=kc(NO)c(H2) B. v=kc2(NO)c2(H2) C. v=kc(NO)c2(H2) D. v=kc2(NO)c(H2) 4下列反應的標準摩爾焓等于其產(chǎn)物的標準摩爾生成焓的是( )。A. SO2(g)yO2(g)9SO3(g) B. yN2(g)yO2(g)9NO(g)C. 2H2(g)O2(g)92H2O(g) D. CO(g)yO2(g)9CO2(g)5反應2A2B93C,對A是一級反應,對B是二級反應,其反應速率常數(shù)k的單位為( )。A. s-1 B. m
15、ol·L-1·s-1 C. L·mol-1·s-1 D. L2·mol-2·s-16反應2H2O2(g) 92H2O(g)+O2(g) rHym =-211.46 kJ·mol-1,對其逆反應來說,下列說法正確的是( )。A. Ky與溫度無關 B. Ky隨溫度升高而增大C. Ky隨溫度升高而減小 D. 增加p(H2O2), Ky增大7幾個數(shù)字乘除運算,計算結果有效數(shù)字的位數(shù)取決于( )。A.相對誤差最大的 B. 相對誤差最小的C.絕對誤差最大的 D. 絕對誤差最小的8若用雙指示劑法測定NaOH和Na2CO3組成的混合堿,則達
16、兩等量點時,所需HCl標準溶液的體積有如下關系( )。A.V1V2 B.V1V2 C9用四個量子數(shù)n、 l、 m、 ms表示某一電子的運動狀態(tài),不合理的是( )。A. 3,2,-2,+y B. 3,1,1,+y C. 3,2,1,-y D. 3,0,1,-y10表示Fe3+的價電子層結構,正確的是( )。A. 3d64s2 B. 3d54s0 C. 3d34s2 D. 3d44s111離子鍵不具有飽和性,但離子能結合的相反電荷的離子的數(shù)量有限,原因是( )。A離子外空間有限B. 離子電荷的數(shù)量有限C. 離子結合的相反電荷的離子數(shù)量有限D. 離子鍵的穩(wěn)定性有限12Fe(OH)3沉淀在下列介質中溶
17、解度最大( )。A. 純水 B. 0.10 mol·L-1NH3·H2OC. 0.10 mol·L-1HAc D. 0.10 mol·L-1FeCl3 13下列電對中,標準電極電位最大的是( )。A. AgBr/Ag B. Ag2CrO4/Ag C. Ag(NH3)2+/Ag D. Ag+/Ag 14某有色溶液,當濃度減小時,溶液的最大吸收波長和吸光度分別( )。A. 向長波方向移動,不變 B. 不變,變小C. 不變,最大 D. 向短波方向移動,不變15下列分子中,偶極矩為零的是( )。A. NF3 B. CHCl3 C. SiH4 D. OF216下列
18、物質不可以作為基準物質的是( )。 A. 硼砂 B. 鄰苯二甲酸氫鉀 C. 氫氧化鈉 D. 碳酸鈉17強酸滴定弱堿,以下指示劑不能使用的是( )。A. 甲基橙 B. 酚酞 C. 甲基紅 D. 溴甲酚綠18下列配離子在強酸介質中,肯定能穩(wěn)定存在的為( )。A. AgCl2- B. AlF63- C. Mn(NH3)62+ D. Fe(C2O4)33-19下列物質中的中心離子屬于sp3d2雜化的是( )。A. Cu(CN)42- B. FeF63- C. Cu(NH3)42+ D. Fe(CN)63-20已知溴在酸性介質中的電極電位圖為 則下列說法不正確的是( )。A. 酸性介質中,溴元素中間價態(tài)
19、的物質均易歧化B. 酸性介質中,HBrO能發(fā)生歧化C. 酸性介質中,BrO4-能將Br-氧化成為BrO3-D. 酸性介質中,溴的含氧酸根都具有較強的氧化性二、填空題(每空1分,共30分) 得分: 分1HF、HCl、HBr三物質,分子間取向力按 順序遞增;色散力 按 順序遞增;沸點按 順序遞增。2BaSO4(Kysp1.08×10-10)、AgCl(Kysp1.77×10-10)、CaF2(Kysp×10-11)溶解度從大到小的順序是 。3配合物CoCl(SCN)(en)2Cl的名稱是 ,中心離子是 ,中心離子的配位數(shù)是 ,配體數(shù)是 ,配體是 。4 mol·
20、;L-1 ) + 5Fe3+ (0.1mol·L-1) + 4H2O的電池符號是: 。5朗伯比爾定律中,吸光度A與溶液濃度c及液層厚度b的關系為 ,透光率T為50的溶液,其A ,為了使測量的誤差比較小,吸光度的讀數(shù)應該控制在 范圍內。6把0.020 mol·L-1 的Na2SO4溶液10 mL與0.0050 mol·L-1 的BaCl2溶液90 mL混合制得BaSO4溶膠,電泳時膠粒向_極移動,其膠團結構式為 。AlCl3、MgSO4、K3Fe(CN)6三種電解質對該溶膠的聚沉能力由小到大為 。7乙炔分子中,碳原子的雜化類型是_,分子中鍵有_個,鍵_個。8以下幾種
21、情況反應速率加快的主要原因是:增加反應物濃度 ;升高溫度 ;加催化劑 。9NaH2PO4水溶液的質子條件式為 。10濃度為0.1 mol·L-1某一元弱酸能被準確滴定的條件是 。1129號元素其基態(tài)原子核外電子排布式為 ,是第 周期、第 族、 區(qū)元素。12pH=2.0的HAc溶液用等體積水稀釋后,其pH值會變?yōu)開 _。13已知y(Fe3+/ Fe2+)0.68V,y(Ce4+/ Ce3+)1.44V。以Ce4+滴定Fe2+至終點時的電位為 V。三、判斷題(正確的填“”;錯誤的填“×”。每小題1分,共10分) 得分: 分1滲透壓不同的兩種溶液用半透膜相隔時,滲透壓大的溶液將迫
22、使?jié)B透壓小的溶液液面有所上升。 ( )2y大小反應物質的得失電子的能力,與電極反應的寫法有關。 ( )325下,元素穩(wěn)定單質的fHym =0,Sym =0, fGym =0。 ( )4在消除系統(tǒng)誤差的前提下,增加實驗次數(shù)可消除隨機誤差。 ( )5在薛定諤方程中,波函數(shù)描述的是原子軌道;2描述的是電子在原子核外某處出現(xiàn)的概率密度。 ( )6用酸效應曲線可選擇酸堿滴定的指示劑。 ( )7用部分風化的H2C2O4·2H2O作基準物質標定NaOH,結果偏高。 ( )8活化能高的反應,其反應速率很低,且達到平衡時其Ky值也一定很小。( )9難溶電解質的不飽和溶液中不存在沉淀溶解平衡 。 ( )
23、10強酸滴定弱堿,突躍范圍與弱堿的解離常數(shù)和起始濃度有關。 ( )四、計算題(第1題9分,第24題各7分,要求計算步驟清晰,代入數(shù)據(jù)的過程不能省略,有效數(shù)字位數(shù)正確。) 得分: 分已知CO2(g)和Fe2O3(s)在298.15K下時,fHym (CO2, g)=-393.51kJ·mol-1,fHym (CO2, g)=-394.38kJ·mol-1, fHym (Fe2O3, s)=-822.2kJ·mol-1, fHym (Fe2O3, s)=-741.0kJ·mol-1則反應Fe2O3(s) + C(s)=2Fe(s) + CO2(g)在什么溫度
24、下能自發(fā)進行?2蛋白質試樣g,采用適當?shù)姆椒▽⑵渲械腘處理成NH4+,然后加入濃堿蒸餾,用過量的硼酸溶液吸收溶液蒸出的NH3,再用0.1200mol·L-1L滴定至終點,計算試樣中N的質量分數(shù)(MN=·mol-1).將等體積的濃度均為0.002 mol·L-1的KCl和KI混合,逐滴加入AgNO3溶液(設體積不變),問Cl-和I-沉淀順序如何?能否用分步沉淀方法將兩者分離?Kysp(AgCl)=1.77×10-10,Kysp(AgI)2×10-17 已知y(Fe3+/ Fe2+, y(Cu2+/ ,計算當c(Fe2+)= c(Cu2+) = m
25、ol·L-1, Fe3+的濃度至少大于多少時下列反應才能進行: 2 Fe3+ + Cu 9 2 Fe2+ + Cu2+ 參考答案:一、單項選擇題(每小題1.5分,共30分)1.C 2.D 3.D 4.B 5.D 6.B 7.A 8.A 9.D 10.B11.A 12.C 13.D 14.D 15.C 16.C 17.B 18.A 19.B二、填空題(每空1分,共30分) 1. HBr<HCl<HF;HF <HCl< HBr;HCl < HBr <HF2. s(CaF2)> s (AgCl)> s (BaSO4)3. (一)氯化一氯
26、83;一硫氰根·二乙二胺合鈷(III); Co3+;6;4;Cl-、SCN-、en4.(-)Pt| Fe2+(0.1 mol·L-1), Fe3+(0.1 mol·L-1)| MnO4-(0.1 mol·L-1), H+(1.0 mol·L-1), Mn2+(0.1 mol·L-1)| Pt(+) 5. A=bc;6. 負;(BaSO4)m·nBa2+·2(n-x)Cl-2x+·2xCl-或(BaSO4)m·nBa2+·(2n-x)Cl-x+·xCl-, AlCl3<M
27、gSO4<K3Fe(CN)67. sp等性雜化;3;28. 單位體積內活化分子的總數(shù)增加;活化分子百分數(shù)增加;改變反應途徑,降低反應活化能。9. c(H+)+c(H3PO4)=c(HPO42-)+2c(PO43-)+c(OH-)10. Kya10-7 11. 1s22s22p63s23p63d104s1;四;IB;ds12. 變大(若計算為)三、判斷題(每空1分,共10分)1.× 2. × 3. × 4. × 5. 6. × 7. × 8. × 9. 10. 四.計算題(第1題9分,第2-4題各7分)1. 解: =3(
28、CO2, g)- 2(Fe2O3, s) =3×(-393.51)- 2×(-822.2)=(kJ·mol-1) =3(CO2, g)- 2(Fe2O3, s) =3×(-394.38)- 2×(-741.0)=(kJ·mol-1) =-T=0.5534(kJ·mol-1·K-1) T >=838.2(K)2解:3解:生成AgCl, AgI沉淀時所需Ag+的濃度分別為 所以加入Ag+后,首先析出AgI沉淀。當AgCl沉淀生成時,溶液中殘留的I-濃度為所以,當AgCl開始沉淀時,I-已經(jīng)沉淀完全,利用分步沉淀可
29、以將二者分離。4. 解: 當=>0時反應能進行,所以 =+即 0.77+0.0591 lg c(Fe3+得lg c(Fe3+)>-7.28 c(Fe3+)> 5.25×10-8mol·L-1請您務必刪除一下內容,O(_)O萬分謝謝!2015年中央電大期末復習考試小抄大全,電大期末考試必備小抄,電大考試必過小抄Indonesia has emerged as a top vacation destination for Chinese this summer, along with Thailand's Phuket island and the M
30、aldives archipelago. Encouraged by growth in Chinese travelers to Indonesia, the government in Jakarta has recently relaxed its visa policy. Since June 10, Chinese tourists can enter Indonesia through nine appointed locations, including the Soekarno Hatta International Airport in Jakarta, the Ngurah
31、 Rai International Airport in Bali and the Kuala Namu International Airport in Medan, by just getting their passports stamped on arrival. Officially, it is called the "free-visa" scheme. The new policy also means Chinese tourists can save $35 on visa fees, which will likely make trips to I
32、ndonesia more alluring. While such an arrangement allows Chinese visitors to stay up to 30 days for the purpose of traveling, those seeking extensions will need to get paid visas from that country's missions inBeijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou or Hong Kong, according to an officia
33、l at the Indonesia embassy in Beijing. Santo Darmosumarto, head of the embassy's information, social and cultural section, says the new policy is aimed at strengthening people-to-people contacts between the two countries. Dai Yu, marketing director of Ctrip, a major Chinese online travel agency,
34、 says: "We've seen a nearly 50 percent growth over the previous month in the number of Chinese tourists to Bali since the policy was announced." During his trip to China in March, Indonesian President Joko Widodo proposed that his country and China aim to increase two-way visits to a m
35、aximum of 10 million people in the next few years. The Indonesian government has set their sights on greeting 2 million Chinese tourists by the end of this year, according to the official. "The Indonesian government hopes that Indonesian nationals would also be given preferential treatment whil
36、e visiting China," says Darmosumarto. In 2013, the number of Chinese tourists who visited Indonesia stood around 807,000. Last year, it increased to 959,000, he adds. Bali remains the most popular site among Chinese tourists. In February, more than 92,200 Chinese tourists made trips to Bali, ra
37、nking first among overseas visitors, the Bali Times reported. Last year, the island witnessed more than 586,000 arrivals from China, an increase of 51 percent over 2013. "Bali isn't just for sightseeing, but also for weddings, honeymoons, golf and many outdoor activities," says Fan Wen
38、qing, a marketing executive at Garuda, Indonesia's national airliner. Garuda offers three nonstop flights between Beijing and Bali, and four each week between Beijing and Jakarta. There are daily flights from Guangzhou, in Guangdong province, and Shanghai to Jakarta as well. It takes f
39、rom six to eight hours on a nonstop flight to reach Indonesia from China. Indonesia is home to more than 17,000 islands. Tourists can tour Yogyakarta to see Prambanam and Borobudur, two historical and religious sites, and explore the local handicraft markets. The base of a volcano, Bandung, which is
40、 also known as the "Paris of Java", is ideal for adventure-seekers. Many ecotourism destinations, such as Toba Lake in Sumatra, Tanjung Puting National Park in Kalimantan and Bunaken in Manado, are places the embassy official recommends for tourists. Indonesia boasts world-class surfing fa
41、cilities along the shores of Sumatra down to Nusa Tenggara Islands. Recently, Lombok, a sister island east of Bali has gotten so much attention from Chinese travelers that some travel agencies are offering twin packages for Bali and Lombok. The best time to visit Bali is from May to October, when it
42、 doesn't rain much and the weather is cool. At press time, a weeklong package from Shanghai or Guangzhou to Bali was a little more than 3,000 yuan ($480) on Ctrip's website. Chinese tourists have taken a shine to rafting in Ubud, sightseeing in Tanah Lot, and surfing and diving in
43、Nusa Lembongan, says Dai. Civet coffee, essential oil and woodcarvings are among the most popular products for Chinese tourists in Indonesia, she says. Indonesian food is also something that visitors shouldn't miss. Local cuisines feature many spices, including peppers and cloves, and coconut pu
44、lp. Fried rice, "dirty duck" and roast suckling pig are recommended. Children's illustration books first appeared in the 1600s in Europe. Their passage to China, however, took much longer, roughly 300 years. In China, children's illustration books have a history of just 100 years a
45、nd their development can be divided into four stages. From early 1900s to mid 1900s, a large number of books and magazines with illustrations appeared with the fast development of the modern publishing industry. The illustration arts at that time were a mixed genre of Chinese traditional p
46、aintings and the western style, and most of the stories originate from the fundamental changes that China experienced after the collapse of Qing Dynasty (1644-1911), the warlord struggles and the war against the Japanese invasion. The second stage was from mid 1900s to late 1970s, when the &quo
47、t;cultural revolution" (1966-76) ended. The fast development of some special publishing houses for children gave birth to a large number of illustration-story books, which made a good use of folk art techniques, such as wood board carving, frescoes, and ink and wash painting, etc. Many of the p
48、opular stories are from Chinese history and wars after 1900s. The third stage is from early 1980s to late 1990s, a golden period for the development of children's illustration books. The reform and opening-up brought in new concepts and ideas from the West to China, a country that had been close
49、d to the West for nearly three decades. Fast development of economy, society and culture provided the writers and painters with a lot of inspiration to create new literature works and draw illustrations. China also imported large amounts of children's illustration books from the West and Japan.
50、Many young parents in China have a strong nostalgia about children's illustration books they read in the 1980s and 1990s. This is also the last era in China's artistic innovation before the advent of the Internet period. The fourth stage is featured with the spread of the Internet and the ot
51、her computerized means of art innovation. The hand-drawn children's illustration books are gradually replaced by cartoons drawn and copied by software and machines, and shown on tablets, computers, television and smart phones, instead of books. Hainan Tropical Wildlife Park and Botanical Garden is nature's haven, with no less than 4,000 rare birds and animal
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