syntax句法學(xué)

1、SyntaxLiu Sihuiwhat is syntax?Syntax refers to the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a language or simply, the study of the formation of sentences.Sentences are composed of discrete units that are combined by rules. This system of rules explains how speaker

2、s can store infinite knowledge in a finite space-our brain.FromGreek: syn(together)+tax(arrangement)Both the study of morphology and the study of syntax may be grouped together as grammar.Contents1. Syntax as opposed to Morphology.2. The traditional apporach.3. The structural apporach.4. The generat

3、ive apporach.5. The functional apporach.1. Syntax as opposed to morphologySyntax is about principles of forming and understanding correct sentences.The form or structure of a sentence is governed by the rules of syntax. These rules specify word order, sentence organization and the relationship betwe

4、en words, word classes and other sentence elements.syntax as opposed to morphologyA principle distinction between morphology and syntaxthe former is concerned with the internal composition of a word, whereas the latter is concerned with combinations of words.Poole: derivation, being concerned with t

5、he creation of new lables, draws morphplogy towards lexis while inflection, being concerned with function, draws morphology towards syntax.2. the traditional approachIt takes a sentence as a sequence of words.It studies sentence formation by studying words in terms of categories and their interrelat

6、ionships.2. the traditional approach2.1 Lexical categories2.2 Phrasal categories2.3 Syntactic functions2.4 Syntactic features2.5 Sentence types1. Lexical categoriesIt refers to a group of linguistic items which fulfill the same or similar functions in a particular language such as a sentence, a noun

7、 phrase or a verb.Major lexical categoriesNoun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, PrepositionMinor lexical categoriesDeterminer, Auxiliary, Conjunction, Infinitive, Negative2. Phrasal categoriesThe syntactic units that are built around a certain word category are called phrase categories, such as NP.Word lev

8、el categories can be extended to phrasal categories with heads :3. Syntactic FunctionsSyntactic function shows the relationship between a linguistic form and other parts of the linguistic pattern in which it is used.Subject: Semantically, subject refers to the noun which serves as the doer or agent

9、of the action. 3. Syntactic FunctionsThe traditional approach to syntactic function identifies constituents of the sentence, states the part of speech that each word related to the others.According to the relation to other constituents, a constituent may serve certain syntactic function in a clause.

10、There are five function categories of clause constituents:Subject, verb, object, complement, and adverbialS-subjectV-verbO-object-direct object, indirect objectC- complementA-adverbial 4. Syntactic FeaturesTraditionally, a sentence is seen as a sequence of words. The study of sentence formation, the

11、refore, involves a great deal of the study of words1. number, gender, case2. tense, aspect3. concord and government4.1Number/gender/case(Ns, Vs)Number: a grammatical category of nouns, pronouns, and adjective and verb agreement that expresses count distinctions. nouns and pronounssingle or plural I,

12、 We, You, They. a book V.S some books verbs I speak English. He speaks English.Gender the category of nouns and pronouns a grammatical category dividing nouns into classes basically characterizable by reference to sex.gender displays such contrasts as masculine:feminine:neuter, animate: inanimate, e

13、tc. for the analysis of word classes. eg. actor/actresscaseThe case category is used in the analysis of word classes to identify the syntactic relationship between words in a sentence.In English, case is a special form of the noun which frequently correspnd to a combination of preposition and noun,

14、and it is realized in three channels.a. inflectionb. following a prepositionc. word ordercase nominative (subject form) accusative 直接受格(direct object form) dative 間接受格(indirect object form) genetive屬格 (possessive form)Case: pronouns nominative (I, he, she) genitive(my, his, her) accusative (me, him,

15、 her) nouns general (John, boys) genitive ( Johns, boys)名詞的主賓格看語(yǔ)序4.2 Tense and aspect(體) the category of verbsTense: indicating time related to the time of utterance. Aspect: the internal temporal structure of a verb.E.g I am reading a book. He went to the concert last night.Based on the tense syste

16、m of Latin, English used to have 16 tenses. English TensesPresent: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Past: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive Future: simple/progressive/perfect/perfect progressive P a s t F u t u r e : s i m p l e / f u t u r e progressive/perfect/perfect pr

17、ogressiveEnglish Aspects Perfective aspect 完成體 Prograssive aspect 進(jìn)行體4.3 Concord and GovernmentConcord (agreement): the forms of two or more words in a syntactic relationship should agree with each other in terms of some categories.eg. a book two books John went to his Uncles. He speaks French. They

18、 speak English. Government(支配關(guān)系): a word of a certain class governs the form of others. Usually the verb or the preposition determines the form of pronoun after it. In traditional grammar, the term government has typically been used to refer to the relationship between verbs and nouns or between pre

19、positions and nouns.eg. She gave him a book She gave a book to him. 5. Sentence types: traditional approachSentencesimplenon-simple complex compoundsentence typessimple sentence: a single clause that stands alone as its own sentence Sam did his homework. His uncle bought him a nice present.coordinat

20、e sentence: two or more clauses joined by a conjunction in a coordinate relationship John did the cooking and Mary washed the plex sentence: combining two or more clauses in such a way that one clause function as a grammatical part of the other one. That the prisoner escaped shocked everyone. I wond

21、er if you could help.5. the functional approach1. The Prague School2. The London School3. Systemic Functional Grammar 3.1 Ideational metafunction (system of transitivity) 3.2 Interpersonal metafunction ( mood modality) 3.3 Textual metafunction (theme&rhyme cohesion)5.1 the prague schoolThe pragu

22、e school with Mathesius as its founder analyze sentences from both grammatical and functional sentence perspective.From a grammatical perspective, the sentence is sequenced as S+P.From a functional perspective, the sentence can be divided into two parts, theme+rheme.Functional approach was first sta

23、rted by Prague School and then developed by the London School.5.2 The London SchoolMalinowski: He considered language as a social phenomenon and human behavior and he concerned the function of language. According to him, the meaning of an utterance does not come from the ideas of the words comprisin

24、g it but from its relation to the situational context.With this understanding, Malinowski distinguished 3 types of context of situation. 1. situations in which speech interrelates with bodily activities;2. narrative situations;3. situations in which a speech is used to fill a speech vacuum - phatic

25、communionFirth: The founder of London School.He regarded language as a social process, as a means of social life and a mode of action.Meaning of an utterance is what it does. Sohe focused on the study of language in action.To him, language is a means of doing thingsand of making others do things. Me

26、aning is to be interpreted as acceptability according to that context.他堅(jiān)持的一個(gè)分析原則是區(qū)別“結(jié)構(gòu)”（structure）和“系統(tǒng)”（system）。結(jié)構(gòu)包括內(nèi)部句法結(jié)構(gòu)的成分，這些成分在相互可以預(yù)期的順序的情況下各有位置?？赏ㄓ玫捻?xiàng)目或單位的系統(tǒng)用來說明這些成分的聚合價(jià)值。由于弗斯把“系統(tǒng)”一詞重新定義為聚合關(guān)系，他的學(xué)生后來發(fā)展了系統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法（systemicgrammar）。弗斯把語(yǔ)言的聚合關(guān)系叫做“系統(tǒng)”，把組合關(guān)系叫做“結(jié)構(gòu)”。Malinowskys idea of context of situation and

27、 Firths idea of systemic grammar have been applied to the analysis of discourse by their successors like M.A.K Halliday.5.3 Systemic Functional GrammarSystemic functional grammar (SFG) or systemic functional linguistics (SFL) is a model of grammar developed by Michael Halliday in the 1960s.1 It is p

28、art of a broad social semiotic approach to language called systemic linguistics. The term systemic refers to the view of language as a network of systems, or interrelated sets of options for making meaning;2 The term functional indicates that the approach is concerned with the contextualized, practi

29、cal uses to which language is put, as opposed to formal grammar, which focuses on compositional semantics, syntax and word classes such as nouns and verbs Systemic GrammarIt aims to explain the internal relations in language as a system network, or meaning potention. And this network consists of sub

30、systems from which language users make chices.系統(tǒng)語(yǔ)法的目標(biāo)是要說明語(yǔ)言作為系統(tǒng)的內(nèi)部底層關(guān)系，它是與意義相關(guān)聯(lián)的可供人們不斷選擇的若干子系統(tǒng)組成的系統(tǒng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)。在表達(dá)意義時(shí)，人們特意在系統(tǒng)網(wǎng)絡(luò)中進(jìn)行選擇。在此基礎(chǔ)上，選擇就是意義。韓李德認(rèn)為，在不同的層次間存在著體現(xiàn)關(guān)系?！耙饬x”的選擇（在語(yǔ)義層面上）被“形式”的選擇（在詞匯語(yǔ)法層面上）所體現(xiàn)；而“形式”的選擇又被音系層上“實(shí)體”的選擇所體現(xiàn)。換言之，就是“能干什么”體現(xiàn)于“能意味著什么”，“能意味著什么”體現(xiàn)于“能說什么”。根據(jù)體現(xiàn)的觀點(diǎn)，我們可以把語(yǔ)言看作一個(gè)多重代碼系統(tǒng)，在這個(gè)系統(tǒng)里一個(gè)子系統(tǒng)包

31、含于另一個(gè)系統(tǒng)中。Functional GrammarIt aims to reveal that language is a means of social interraction, based on the assumption that language system and the forms that make it up are inescapably determined by the users or functions which they serve.功能語(yǔ)法的目標(biāo)是要說明語(yǔ)言是社會(huì)交往的手段，其基礎(chǔ)是語(yǔ)言系統(tǒng)及其構(gòu)成成分不可避免地由它們所提供功能和使用者所決定。Lang

32、uage is functional:three metafunctions of language ideational function 概念功能達(dá)意功能 interpersonal function and 人際功能 textual function 語(yǔ)篇功能IDEATIONAL METAFUNCTION 達(dá)意概念功能“Language serves for the expression of content: that is, of the speakers experience of the real world, including the inner world of his o

33、wn consciousness.” (Halliday 1970) 概念部分描寫句子的語(yǔ)意內(nèi)容。語(yǔ)言如何捕捉現(xiàn)實(shí)和我們對(duì)世界的體驗(yàn)，即語(yǔ)言指稱人、物、動(dòng)作、事件、狀態(tài)等，主要由經(jīng)驗(yàn)和邏輯兩個(gè)網(wǎng)絡(luò)系統(tǒng)組成。 Experiential system is concerned with the choice of meaning, which is realized through transitivity system（及物性系統(tǒng)） of language 經(jīng)驗(yàn)系統(tǒng)解決意義的選擇問題。這主要由及物性網(wǎng)絡(luò)來完成。Transitivity describes the relationship bet

34、ween the Process of the verb, Participants and Circumstances.The transitivity system views the world in terms of processes- -material, mental, verbal, existential, relational, and behavioural及物系統(tǒng)表示參與某種交際的人之間的某種關(guān)系，以及參與者的活動(dòng)、狀態(tài)或環(huán)境之間的關(guān)系。說話時(shí)往往要包含一種過程。A. The man kicked the dog.B. The woman hated the old c

35、lothes.C. David is homeless.D. The girl laughed.E. The visitor said “Hello”.F. There is a cat over there.1. The man kicked the dog.KICK is a material process. Material processes are characterized by “doing” verbs, such as running, dressing, climbing, etc.Halliday describes the man as the actor (the

36、person responsible for the action), and the dog as the goal (the thing which is acted upon).Material 物質(zhì)過程- the process of doing and happening.（包括動(dòng)作過程和事件過程）2. The woman hated the old clothes.The predicator has something to do with feeling and thinking, which is internal rather than external, thus the

37、 name mental process.Verbs such as hate, love, know, think and understand belong to this category.Halliday: sensor + phenomenonMental-the process of thinking and sensing.3. David is homeless.It is relational in that its main purpose is to relate the two participants together.Relational verbs are be,

38、 become, appear, etc.Halliday: carrier + attributeRelational關(guān)系過程 - the process of being involving states of being.4. The girl laughed.The predicator falls into a category of verbs such as cough, yawn, and smile which Halliday calls them as behavioral. The behavioral processes are similar to material

39、 processes in that they describe physical actions of some kind but they are different in that the action is not performed on anything.Halliday: behaver.Behavioural 行為過程- the process of behaving.5. The visitor said “Hello”.Halliday calls this category as the verbal process.Verbal processes include wo

40、rds like say, report, claim, question, and explain.Halliday: sayer + targetVerbal 表達(dá)過程- the process of saying and expressing.6. There is a cat over there.Existential process.Hailliday: the existentExistential 存在過程- the process of existence involving only existential constructions.The interpersonal metafunction “Language serves to establish and maintain social relations: for the expression of social roles create