高層建筑組成外文翻譯

1、本科生畢業(yè)設(shè)計（論文）外文資料翻譯文獻出處 Civil engineering magazine 姓名 游明堅 學(xué)號408105030220學(xué) 院工程學(xué)院專業(yè) 土木工程指導(dǎo)教師曹秀玲 2012年 5月8日Components of Tall Buildings1. Abstract Materials and structural forms are combined to make up the various parts of a building, including the load-carrying frame, skin, floors, and partitions. The b

2、uilding also has mechanical and electrical systems, such as elevators, heating and cooling systems, and lighting systems. The superstructure is that part of a building above ground, and the substructure and foundation is that part of a building below ground. The skyscraper owes its existence to two

3、developments of the 19th century: steel skeleton construction and the passenger elevator. Steel as a construction material dates from the introduction of the Bessemer converter in 1885.Gustave Eiffel (1832-1932) introduced steel construction in France. His designs for the Galerie des Machines and th

4、e Tower for the Paris Exposition of 1889 expressed the lightness of the steel framework. The Eiffel Tower, 984 feet (300 meters) high, was the tallest structure built by man and was not surpassed until 40 years later by a series of American skyscrapers. Elisha Otis installed the first elevator in a

5、department store in New York in 1857.In 1889, Eiffel installed the first elevators on a grand scale in the Eiffel Tower, whose hydraulic elevators could transport 2,350 passengers to the summit every hour.2. Load-Carrying Frame Until the late 19th century, the exterior walls of a building were used

6、as bearing walls to support the floors. This construction is essentially a post and lintel type, and it is still used in frame construction for houses. Bearing-wall construction limited the height of building because of the enormous wall thickness required；for instance, the 16-story Monadnock Buildi

7、ng built in the 1880s in Chicago had walls 5 feet (1.5 meters) thick at the lower floors. In 1883, William Le Baron Jenney (1832-1907) supported floors on cast-iron columns to form a cage-like construction. Skeleton construction, consisting of steel beams and columns, was first used in 1889. As a co

8、nsequence of skeleton construction, the enclosing walls become a “curtain wall” rather than serving a supporting function. Masonry was the curtain wall material until the 1930s, when light metal and glass curtain walls were used. After the introduction of buildings continued to increase rapidly. All

9、 tall buildings were built with a skeleton of steel until World War . After the war, the shortage of steel and the improved quality of concrete led to tall building being built of reinforced concrete. Marina Tower (1962) in Chicago is the tallest concrete building in the United States； its height588

10、 feet (179 meters)is exceeded by the 650-foot (198-meter) Post Office Tower in London and by other towers. A change in attitude about skyscraper construction has brought a return to the use of the bearing wall. In New York City, the Columbia Broadcasting System Building, designed by Eero Saarinen in

11、 1962,has a perimeter wall consisting of 5-foot (1.5meter) wide concrete columns spaced 10 feet (3 meters) from column center to center. This perimeter wall, in effect, constitutes a bearing wall. One reason for this trend is that stiffness against the action of wind can be economically obtained by

12、using the walls of the building as a tube； the World Trade Center building is another example of this tube approach. In contrast, rigid frames or vertical trusses are usually provided to give lateral stability. 3. Skin The skin of a building consists of both transparent elements (windows) and opaque

13、 elements (walls). Windows are traditionally glass, although plastics are being used,especially in schools where breakage creates a maintenance problem. The wall elements, which are used to cover the structure and are supported by it, are built of a variety of materials: brick, precast concrete, sto

14、ne, opaque glass, plastics, steel, and aluminum. Wood is used mainly in house construction； it is not generally used for commercial, industrial, or public building because of the fire hazard. 4. Floors The construction of the floors in a building depends on the basic structural frame that is used. I

15、n steel skeleton construction, floors are either slabs of concrete resting on steel beams or a deck consisting of corrugated steel with a concrete topping. In concrete construction, the floors are either slabs of concrete on concrete beams or a series of closely spaced concrete beams (ribs) in two d

16、irections topped with a thin concrete slab, giving the appearance of a waffle on its underside. The kind of floor that is used depends on the span between supporting columns or walls and the function of the space. In an apartment building, for instance, where walls and columns are spaced at 12 to 18

17、 feet (3.7 to 5.5 meters), the most popular construction is a solid concrete slab with no beams. The underside of the slab serves as the ceiling for the space below it. Corrugated steel decks are often used in office buildings because the corrugations, when enclosed by another sheet of metal, form d

18、ucts for telephone and electrical lines. 5. Mechanical and Electrical SystemsA modern building not only contains the space for which it is intended (office, classroom, apartment) but also contains ancillary space for mechanical and electrical systems that help to provide a comfortable environment. T

19、hese ancillary spaces in a skyscraper office building may constitute 25% of the total building area. The importance of heating, ventilating, electrical, and plumbing systems in an office building is shown by the fact that 40% of the construction budget is allocated to them. Because of the increased

20、use of sealed building with windows that cannot be opened, elaborate mechanical systems areprovided for ventilation and air conditioning. Ducts and pipes carry fresh air from central fan rooms and air conditioning machinery. The ceiling, which is 3 suspended below the upper floor construction, conce

21、als the ductwork and contains the lighting units. Electrical wiring for power and for telephone communication may also be located in this ceiling space or may be buried in the floor construction in pipes or conduits. There have been attempts to incorporate the mechanical and electrical systems into

22、the architecture of building by frankly expressing them； for example, the American Republic Insurance Company Building(1965) in Des Moines, Iowa, exposes both the ducts and the floor structure in an organized and elegant pattern and dispenses with the suspended ceiling. This type of approach makes i

23、t possible to reduce the cost of the building and permits innovations, such as in the span of the structure. 6. Soils and Foundations All building are supported on the ground, and therefore the nature of the soil becomes an extremely important consideration in the design of any building. The design

24、of a foundation depends on many soil factors, such as type of soil, soil stratification, thickness of soil lavers and their compaction, and groundwater conditions. Soils rarely have a single composition； they generally are mixtures in layers of varying thickness. For evaluation, soils are graded acc

25、ording to particle size, which increases from silt to clay to sand to gravel to rock. In general, the larger particle soils will support heavier loads than the smaller ones. The hardest rock can support loads up to 100 tons per square foot(976.5 metric tons/sq meter), but the softest silt can suppor

26、t a load of only 0.25 ton per square foot(2.44 metric tons/sq meter). All soils beneath the surface are in a state of compaction；that is, they are under a pressure that is equal to the weight of the soil column above it. Many soils (except for most sands and gavels) exhibit elastic propertiesthey de

27、form when compressed under load and rebound when the load is removed. The elasticity of soils is often time-dependent, that is, deformations of the soil occur over a length of time which may vary from minutes to years after a load is imposed. Over a period of time, a building may settle if it impose

28、s a load on the soil greater than the natural compaction weight of the soil. Conversely, a building may heave if it imposes loads on the soil smaller than the natural compaction weight. The soil may also flow under the weight of a building； that is, it tends to be squeezed out. Due to both the compa

29、ction and flow effects, buildings tend settle. Uneven settlements, exemplified by the leaning towers in Pisa and Bologna, can have damaging effectsthe building may lean, walls and partitions may crack, windows and doors may become inoperative, and, in the extreme, a building may collapse. Uniform se

30、ttlements are not so serious, although extreme conditions, such as those in Mexico City, can have serious consequences. Over the past 100 years, a change in the groundwater level there has caused some buildings to settle more than 10 feet (3 meters). Because such movements can occur during and after

31、 construction, careful analysis of the behavior of soils under a building is vital. The great variability of soils has led to a variety of solutions to the foundation problem. Where 4 firm soil exists close to the surface, the simplest solution is to rest columns on a small slab of concrete(spread f

32、ooting). Where the soil is softer, it is necessary to spread the column load over a greater area；in this case, a continuous slab of concrete(raft or mat) under the whole building is used.In cases where the soil near the surface is unable to support the weight of the building, piles of wood, steel, o

33、r concrete are driven down to firm soil. The construction of a building proceeds naturally from the foundation up to the superstructure. The design process, however, proceeds from the roof down to the foundation (in the direction of gravity). In the past, the foundation was not subject to systematic

34、 investigation. A scientific approach to the design of foundations has been developed in the 20th century. Karl Terzaghi of the United States pioneered studies that made it possible to make accurate predictions of the behavior of foundations, using the science of soil mechanics coupled with explorat

35、ion and testing procedures. Foundation failures of the past, such as the classical example of the leaning tower in Pisa, have become almost nonexistent. Foundations still are a hidden but costly part of many buildings. Although there have been many advancements in building construction technology in

36、 general, spectacular achievements have been made in the design and construction of ultrahigh-rise buildings. The early development of high-rise buildings began with structural steel framing. Reinforced concrete and stressed-skin tube systems have since been economically and competitively used in a

37、number of structures for both residential and commercial purposes. The high-rise buildings ranging from 50 to 110 stories that are being built all over the United States are the result of innovations and development of new structural systems. Greater height entails increased column and beam sizes to

38、 make buildings more rigid so that under wind load they will not sway beyond an acceptable limit. Excessive lateral sway may cause serious recurring damage to partitions, ceilings, and other architectural details. In addition, excessive sway may cause discomfort to the occupants of the building beca

39、use of their perception of such motion. Structural systems of reinforced concrete, as well as steel, take full advantage of the inherent potential stiffness of the total building and therefore do not require additional stiffening to limit the sway. In a steel structure, for example, the economy can

40、be defined in terms of the total average quantity of steel per square foot of floor area of the building. Curve A in Fig.1 represents the average unit weight of a conventional frame with increasing numbers of stories. Curve B represents the average steel weight if the frame is protected from all lat

41、eral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for all lateral loads. The gap between the upper boundary and the lower boundary represents the premium for height for the traditional column-and-beam frame. Structural engineers have developed structural sy

42、stems with a view to eliminating this premium. 7. Tube in tubeAnother system in reinforced concrete for office buildings combines the traditional shear wall construction with an exterior framed tube. The system consists of an outer framed tube of very closely spaced columns and an interior rigid she

43、ar wall tube enclosing the central service area. The system (Fig.2), known as the tube-in-tube system, made it possible to design the worlds present tallest (714 ft or 218 m) lightweight concrete building (the 52-story One Shell Plaza Building in Houston) for the unit price of a traditional shear wa

44、ll structure of only 35 stories. Systems combining both concrete and steel have also been developed, an example of which is the composite system developed by Skidmore, Owings & Merrill in which an exterior closely spaced framed tube in concrete envelops an interior steel framing, thereby combini

45、ng the advantages of both reinforced concrete and structural steel systems. The story One Shell Square Building in New Orleans is based on this system. 高層建筑組成1摘要材料和結(jié)構(gòu)形式結(jié)合在一起，成為建筑物的各個部分，包括的承載框架，外圍結(jié)構(gòu)，地板和分區(qū)。大樓還設(shè)有電梯，加熱和冷卻系統(tǒng)，如機械和電氣系統(tǒng)，照明系統(tǒng)。上層結(jié)構(gòu)是地面以上建筑物部分，下部結(jié)構(gòu)地基和基礎(chǔ)，是低于地面建筑的一部分。摩天大樓之所以會存在，得益于19世紀的兩個發(fā)展：鋼骨架建設(shè)

46、和乘客電梯。鋼材作為建筑材料是從貝西法在1885被發(fā)明開始。艾菲爾在法國第一次介紹了建筑鋼材。他設(shè)計了1889年巴黎世界博覽會塔鋼框架很出色。艾菲爾鐵塔，高984英尺（300米），是由人建成的最高結(jié)構(gòu)，一直沒有被超越，直到40年后的一系列美國摩天大樓。1889年沙奧的斯為在紐約的百貨公司安裝了第一部電梯。巴黎的鐵塔每隔一小時可以運送2350名乘客，艾菲爾鐵塔安裝了一個規(guī)模宏大的電梯，是有史以來的第一次。2 承重框架直到19世紀末，建筑物的外墻一直被用作承重墻支持地板。這種結(jié)構(gòu)基本上是后門楣類型的，它仍然用于住房建設(shè)的框架。軸承墻施工因建設(shè)需要巨大的墻壁厚度和高度而限制，例如，建于1880年芝加

47、哥的16層高莫納德諾克大廈，在較低樓層墻體高度已達5英尺（1.5米）厚。 1883年，威廉樂男爵（1832至1907年）支持鑄鐵列的鐵柱來支撐樓層。框架結(jié)構(gòu)由骨架建設(shè)，鋼梁和柱組成，于1889年首次使用。作為骨架建設(shè)的成果，圍墻成為“玻璃幕墻”，而不是其他服務(wù)配套。砌體，直到1930年才用輕金屬和玻璃幕墻的使用。引入鋼材料后，建筑物的高度迅速增加。所有的高層都是由鋼骨架建筑的，直到二戰(zhàn)為止。戰(zhàn)爭結(jié)束后，鋼和混凝土質(zhì)量的提高，促使高層鋼筋混凝土建筑的建造。濱海大廈（1962）在芝加哥是美國最高的混凝土建筑，其高度是588英尺（179米），超過在倫敦的辦公室大樓及其他塔。有關(guān)摩天大樓的承

48、重墻的使用在態(tài)度上有了改變。在紐約市，埃羅·沙里寧設(shè)計于1962年的美國哥倫比亞廣播大樓，圍墻由5英尺（1.5米）范圍內(nèi)的混凝土柱組成，柱間距10英尺（3米）。實際上，這圍墻構(gòu)成承重墻。造成這種趨勢的原因之一是建筑物的墻像一個管道可以有效地抵抗風(fēng)的作用；世貿(mào)大樓是另一個管道法的很好例子。相比之下，堅固的框架或垂直支撐通常提供建筑的橫向穩(wěn)定。3 圍護結(jié)構(gòu)建筑物的圍護結(jié)構(gòu)由透明的窗戶和不透明的墻組成。 窗戶是傳統(tǒng)的玻璃，雖然塑料也被使用，尤其是在學(xué)校，破損的嚴重的地方。墻上的材料的作用，是用來掩蓋結(jié)構(gòu)和它支持的，材料有磚，預(yù)制混凝土，石材，不透明的玻璃，塑料，鋼材，鋁。木材主要

49、用于房屋建筑;它一般不用于商業(yè)，工業(yè)和公共建筑等有火災(zāi)隱患的地方。4 樓地面建筑物的樓層的建設(shè)，取決于所使用的基本結(jié)構(gòu)框架。鋼骨架建設(shè)中，地板是在鋼梁或波紋鋼組成的一個具體的平頂甲板上的混凝土或者磚?；炷潦┕ぶ?，地板上混凝土梁或一系列密集的鋼筋混凝土梁在兩個方向（排骨）的混凝土或者磚配上薄混凝土板上，下面抹一層抹面。樓層種類取決于支撐柱之間的距離或墻和空間的功能性。例如，在一座公寓樓，墻壁和列間距在12至18英尺（3.7米至5.5米）之間，最流行的是建設(shè)一個堅實的無梁混凝土板。樓板底面作為它下面的空間上限。辦公大樓中使用波紋鋼地板，因為波紋鋼地板波紋由另一塊金屬板蓋上時，可以形成電話線和電線管道。5 機械電力系統(tǒng)如今的建筑不僅要包含必要的使用空間，也要包括機械、電力系統(tǒng)等的輔助空間，來營造一個舒適的生活環(huán)境。這些輔助的空間可能占大樓總建筑面積的25%。一個辦公大樓中供暖、通風(fēng)、電力和衛(wèi)生設(shè)備系統(tǒng)預(yù)算額在實際建筑總預(yù)算額中的40%，說明了它們在建筑中的重要性。許多建筑是密閉的，窗戶不能被打開，所以由機械系統(tǒng)要提供通風(fēng)設(shè)備和空氣調(diào)節(jié)的設(shè)備。新鮮的空氣從中央換氣室由空氣調(diào)節(jié)器輸入。通風(fēng)管以及控制照明設(shè)備單元由懸掛在上面樓層結(jié)構(gòu)下面的天花板遮住了。提供