克魯格曼國際經(jīng)濟學(第六版)的教師手冊：imch05

1、CHAPTER 5 THE STANDARD TRADE MODELChapter OrganizationA Standard Model of a Trading EconomyProduction Possibilities and Relative SupplyRelative Prices and DemandThe Welfare Effect of Changes in the Terms of TradeDetermining Relative PricesEconomic Growth: A Shift of the RS Curve Growth and the Produ

2、ction Possibility FrontierRelative Supply and the Terms of TradeInternational Effects of GrowthCase Study: Has the Growth of Newly Industrializing Countries Hurt Advanced Nations?International Transfers of Income: Shifting the RD Curve The Transfer ProblemEffects of a Transfer on the Terms of TradeP

3、resumptions about the Terms of Trade Effects of TransfersCase Study: The Transfer Problem and the Asian CrisisTariffs and Export Subsidies: Simultaneous Shifts in RS and RDRelative Demand and Supply Effects of a TariffEffects of an Export SubsidyImplications of Terms of Trade Effects: Who Gains and

4、Who Loses?SummaryAppendix: Representing International Equilibrium With Offer CurvesDeriving a Countrys Offer CurveInternational EquilibriumCHAPTER OVERVIEWPrevious chapters have highlighted specific sources of comparative advantage which give rise to international trade. This chapter presents a gene

5、ral model which admits previous models as special cases. This standard trade model is the workhorse of international trade theory and can be used to address a wide range of issues. Some of these issues, such as the welfare and distributional effects of economic growth, transfers between nations, and

6、 tariffs and subsidies on traded goods are considered in this chapter.The standard trade model is based upon four relationships. First, an economy will produce at the point where the production possibilities curve is tangent to the relative price line (called the isovalue line). Second, indifference

7、 curves describe the tastes of an economy and the consumption point for that economy is found at the tangency of the budget line and the highest indifference curve. These two relationships yield the familiar general equilibrium trade diagram for a small economy (one which takes as given the terms of

8、 trade) where the consumption point and production point are the tangencies of the isovalue line with the highest indifference curve and the production possibilities frontier, respectively. You may want to work with this standard diagram to demonstrate a number of basic points. First, an autarkic ec

9、onomy must produce what it consumes, which determines the equilibrium price ratio; and second, opening an economy to trade shifts the price ratio line and unambiguously increases welfare. Third, an improvement in the terms of trade increases welfare in the economy. Fourth, it is straightforward to m

10、ove from a small country analysis to a two country analysis by introducing a structure of world relative demand and supply curves which determine relative prices.These relationships can be used in conjunction with the Rybczynski and the Stolper-Samuelson Theorems from the previous chapter to address

11、 a range of issues. For example, you can consider whether the dramatic economic growth of countries like Japan and Korea has helped or hurt the United States as a whole, and also identify the classes of individuals within the United States who have been hurt by the particular growth biases of these

12、countries. In teaching these points, it might be interesting and useful to relate them to current events. For example, you can lead a class discussion of the implications for the United States of the provision of forms of technical and economic assistance to the emerging economies around the world o

13、r the ways in which a world recession can lead to a fall in demand for U.S. export goods.The example provided in the text considers the popular arguments in the media that growth in Japan or Korea hurts the United States. The analysis presented in this chapter demonstrates that the bias of growth is

14、 important in determining welfare effects rather than the country in which growth occurs. The existence of biased growth, and the possibility of immiserizing growth is discussed. The Relative Supply (RS) and Relative Demand (RD) curves illustrate the effect of biased growth on the terms of trade. Th

15、e new terms of trade line can be used with the general equilibrium analysis to find the welfare effects of growth. A general principle which emerges is that a country which experiences export-biased growth will have a deterioration in its terms of trade while a country which experiences import-biase

16、d growth has an improvement in its terms of trade. A case study points out that growth in the rest of the world has made other countries more like the United States. This import-biased growth has worsened the terms of trade for the United States. The second issue addressed in the context of the stan

17、dard trade model is the effects of international transfers. The salient point here is the direction, if any, in which the relative demand curve shifts in response to the redistribution of income from a transfer. A transfer worsens the donors terms of trade if it has a higher marginal propensity to c

18、onsume its export good than the recipient. The presence of non-traded goods tends to reinforce the deterioration of terms of trade for the donor country. The case study attendant to this issue involves the deterioration of many Asian countries terms of trade due to the large capital withdrawals at t

19、he end of the 1990s. The third area to which the standard trade model is applied are the effects of tariffs and export subsidies on welfare and terms of trade. The analysis proceeds by recognizing that tariffs or subsidies shift both the relative supply and relative demand curves. A tariff on import

20、s improves the terms of trade, expressed in external prices, while a subsidy on exports worsens terms of trade. The size of the effect depends upon the size of the country in the world. Tariffs and subsidies also impose distortionary costs upon the economy. Thus, if a country is large enough, there

21、may be an optimum, non-zero tariff. Export subsidies, however, only impose costs upon an economy. Intranationally, tariffs aid import-competing sectors and hurt export sectors while subsidies have the opposite effect. An appendix presents offer curve diagrams and explains this mode of analysis.ANSWE

22、RS TO TEXTBOOK PROBLEMS1. An increase in the terms of trade increases welfare when the PPF is right-angled. The production point is the corner of the PPF. The consumption point is the tangency of the relative price line and the highest indifference curve. An improvement in the terms of trade rotates

23、 the relative price line about its intercept with the PPF rectangle (since there is no substitution of immobile factors, the production point stays fixed). The economy can then reach a higher indifference curve. Intuitively, although there is no supply response, the economy receives more for the exp

24、orts it supplies and pays less for the imports it purchases. 2. The difference from the standard diagram is that the indifference curves are right angles rather than smooth curves. Here, a terms of trade increase enables an economy to move to a higher indifference curve. The income expansion path fo

25、r this economy is a ray from the origin. A terms of trade improvement moves the consumption point further out along the ray.3. The terms of trade of Japan, a manufactures (M) exporter and a raw materials (R) importer, is the world relative price of manufactures in terms of raw materials (pM/pR). The

26、 terms of trade change can be determined by the shifts in the world relative supply and demand (manufactures relative to raw materials) curves. Note that in the following answers, world relative supply (RS) and relative demand (RD) are always M relative to R. We consider all countries to be large, s

27、uch that changes affect the world relative price.a. Oil supply disruption from the Middle East decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world relative supply. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Jap

28、ans terms of trade.b. Koreas increased automobile production increases the supply of manufactures, which increases the world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out, decreasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorating Japans terms of trade.c. U.S. development of a subs

29、titute for fossil fuel decreases the demand for raw materials. This increases world RD and the world relative demand curve shifts out, increasing the world relative price of manufactured goods and improving Japans terms of trade. This occurs even if no fusion reactors are installed in Japan since wo

30、rld demand for raw materials falls.d. A harvest failure in Russia decreases the supply of raw materials, which increases the world RS. The world relative supply curve shifts out. Also, Russias demand for manufactures decreases, which reduces world demand so that the world relative demand curve shift

31、s in. These forces decrease the world relative price of manufactured goods and deteriorate Japans terms of trade.e. A reduction in Japans tariff on raw materials will raise its internal relative price of manufactures. This price change will increase Japans RS and decrease Japans RD, which increases

32、the world RS and decreases the world RD (i.e., world RS shifts out and world RD shifts in). The world relative price of manufactures declines and Japans terms of trade deteriorate.4. These results acknowledge the biased growth which occurs when there is an increase in one factor of production. An in

33、crease in the capital stock of either country favors production of good X while an increase in the labor supply favors production of good Y. Also, recognize the Heckscher-Ohlin result that an economy will export that good which uses intensively the factor which hat economy has in relative abundance.

34、 Country A exports good X to country B and imports good Y from country B. The possibility of immiserizing growth makes the welfare effects of a terms of trade improvement due to export-biased growth ambiguous. Import-biased growth unambiguously improves welfare for the growing country. a. As terms o

35、f trade worsen, As welfare may increase or, less likely, decrease, and Bs welfare increases.b. As terms of trade improve, As welfare increases and Bs welfare decreases.c. Bs terms of trade improve, Bs welfare increases and As welfare decreases.d. Bs terms of trade worsen, Bs welfare may increase or,

36、 less likely, decrease, and As welfare increases.5. Immiserizing growth occurs when the welfare deteriorating effects of a worsening in an economys terms of trade swamp the welfare improving effects of growth. For this to occur, an economy must undergo very biased growth and the economy must be a la

37、rge enough actor in the world economy such that its actions spill over to adversely alter the terms of trade to a large degree. This combination of events is unlikely to occur in practice.6. Aid which must be spent on exports increases the demand for those export goods and raises their price relativ

38、e to other goods. There will be a terms of trade deterioration for the recipient country. This can be viewed as a polar case of the effect of a transfer on the terms of trade. Here, the marginal propensity to consume the export good by the recipient country is 1. The donor benefits from a terms of t

39、rade improvement. As with immiserizing growth, it is theoretically possible that a transfer actually worsens the welfare of the recipient.7. Given the difference in technological development between most Eastern European countries and the United States and Japan, the effects on Western European pric

40、es will depend, in the short run, on transfer problem issues and, in the long run, on the likely biases in Eastern Europes growth. The transfer problem point is concerned with the consumption demands of countries which receive available international credit supplies. If loans to developing countries

41、 shift from availability to Latin American countries, which have a relatively high propensity to consume U.S. goods, to availability to Eastern European countries, which have a lower propensity to consume U.S. goods and a higher propensity to consume German goods, the price of German exports will ri

42、se relative to the price of U.S. exports. This would lead to an improvement in the terms of trade of Germany and a worsening of the terms of trade of the United States. Note, however, that in the long term, the analysis of terms of trade effects should also consider whether the biases in economic gr

43、owth in Eastern Europe will be in sectors of the economy more closely aligned with the export industries of Germany or of the United States. The greater the similarity of the export-oriented industrial push in Eastern European with the existing industries in Germany, the greater the supply side reversal of the favorable German terms of trade movement which had arisen from the demand side forces of the transfer problem.8. When a country subsidizes its exports, the world relative supply and r