現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)第八章 社會語言學(xué)

1、現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)現(xiàn)代語言學(xué)第八章第八章 社會語言學(xué)社會語言學(xué)Chapter 8 Socio-linguistics What is socio-linguistics? 什么是社會語言學(xué)？什么是社會語言學(xué)？ Sociolinguistics is the sub-discipline亞學(xué)科 of linguistics that studies language in social contexts. 社會語言學(xué)(sociolinguistics)是一門語言學(xué)的分支學(xué)科，把語言置于社會環(huán)境中來研究語言。 社會是怎樣給人分組的？Social group（貼標簽）什么是語言變異？ Language us

2、e varies from one speech community to another, from one regional group to another, from one social group to anther,and even from one individual 個人 to anther. 語言的使用也是各不相同的，不同的言語社區(qū)之間，不同的地域族群之間，不同的社會階層之間，甚至每個不同的人之間都是有著各種差別的。什么是言語變體？ Speech variety refers to any distinguishable form of speech used by a

3、speaker or group of speakers. A speech variety may be lexical詞匯的, phonological音韻的, morphological形態(tài)的, syntactic語法的, or a combination of linguistic features. 言語變體（speech variety），又稱之為語言變體，是語言使用者所使用的具有一定區(qū)別性特征的變體。這些不同的特征主要反映在發(fā)音、句法規(guī)則或詞匯上。 美式英語 英式英語詞匯的 輪胎 tire tyre 玉米 corn maize 小麥 wheat corn 發(fā)音的 ask ae :

4、 hot a: car 有卷舌 沒卷舌形態(tài)的 裝飾n decor decoration句法的 英式 Cant youdo any better than that? 美式 Is that all the better you can do？什么是Regional variation 地域變異Regional variation is speech variation according to the particular area where a speaker comes from. Regional variation of language is the most discernible

5、可辨別的 and definable可定義的.地域口音(accent) 是地域的自然分區(qū)造成的 7大方言語言規(guī)劃(language planning) 是政府行為 普通話什么是Social variation 社會變異Social variation gives rise to 引起了 sociolects社會方言 which are subdivisible可以細分 into smaller speech categories分類 which reflect their socioeconomic社會地位和經(jīng)濟地位, educational教育背景, occupational職業(yè) and e

6、thnic種族 background, as well as their sex and age.生活在同一地區(qū)的人，雖然使用同一種地方方言，但是他們也會有意或無意選擇符合他們社會身份的言語形式進行交際。 social dialect社會方言 社會方言(social dialect 或sociolect)指社會中屬于同一階級、階層、或社會群體所使用的語言變體。社會方言通行于有著相同社會背景的群體之中。社會群體的多樣化決定了社會方言的多樣化。 Social dialects, or sociolects, are varieties of language used by people belo

7、nging to particular social classes. The speakers of a social dialect usually share a similar social background.Education varieties 教育變體The speakers of a social dialect usually share a similar social background.Many differences in languages use persist for educational reasons. It is, therefore, impor

8、tant to know, for example, whether a group of speakers share similar educational backgrounds.受過相同教育的人往往使用相同的被稱之為教育變體的社會方言。例如，具有高等學(xué)歷的學(xué)生與早期輟學(xué)的學(xué)生相比，他們的語言形式更加書面化書面化。 年齡變體 The way language is used correlates with一一對應(yīng) the age of individual speakers. The importance of age as a social factor in language var

9、iation is strikingly demonstrated顯著的呈現(xiàn) by childrens language as it develops with age. While some differences in pronunciation發(fā)音 are found to correlate with different generation of speakers, the most striking differences are lexical詞匯的. 語言變體與年齡同樣具有一定的相關(guān)性。兒童的變體與成年人變體相比，詞匯量相對較少，句法結(jié)構(gòu)缺少多樣性，語音也不完善。年齡變體的差異

10、表現(xiàn)在變體的各個方面，但是這種差異在詞匯系統(tǒng)上更為顯著。 YOLO，美式英語新詞，是You Only Live Once的首字母縮略詞，意為你只能活一次，是壞孩子做壞事前的宣言。 Often 上了年紀的人喜歡使用”ice-box”,”wireless”等，而年輕人更喜歡使用”fridge”和”boombox”等。 性別變體(gender varieties) Variation in language use is also associated with the sex of individual speakers. Sex-preferential 優(yōu)先的differentiation i

11、n terms of speech varieties of males and females exists in all natural language across the word. In particular, the intentional or unintentional use of sexist language in speech or writing reflects gender-biased cultural traditions in many societies.Register varieties 語域變體Registers are language vari

12、eties appropriate for use in particular speech situations, for that reason, registers are also known as situational dialects.語言的語域變體(register)是一種交際情景方言,以交際時說話者所用語體或文體的得體性為主要特征。 A formal situation may condition決定，使適應(yīng) a formal register, characterized by formal, standard lexical items詞匯項 and grammatica

13、l rules, and speech patterns言語模式; while an informal setting may be reflected in a less formal register that exhibits陳列出 more causal vocabulary, nonstandard grammatical features, and stigmatized受責(zé)難的 speech patterns.語域變體與交際場合、交際各方、交際主題等交際情景因素密切相關(guān)。 正式的交際場合往往需要正式的語域變體，而非正式場合往往要求較為隨便的語域變體。正式的語域通常要求正式的詞匯與

14、句法結(jié)構(gòu),而非正式的語域其詞匯和句法相對較為隨便。 句子中： They chucked a stone at the cops, ad then did a bunk（鋪位）逃跑 with the boot靴子. (informal) After casting a stone at the police, they absconded with the money攜款潛逃. (formal) 短語中： 要求ask for (request ) 訂約go down with (contract) 建立set up (establish) 處理deal with (handle) 發(fā)現(xiàn)find

15、out (discover) 欺騙take in (deceive)Address terms 稱謂語One specific aspect of situational use of language is that of address term usage. An address term, or address form, refers to the word or words used to address somebody in speech or writing所有的語言中都有稱謂語，也有支配稱謂語得體使用的語用規(guī)則。 . It is apparent that the way

16、in which people address one another usually depends on their age, sex, social group, and personal relationship. The English system of frequently used address terms includes first name, last name, title + last name, title alone, and kin term親屬稱謂親屬稱謂. 交際中稱謂語的使用除了考慮交際各方的社會地位之外，還要考慮年齡、性別、職業(yè)、個人關(guān)系等因素。Slan

17、g 俚語Slang is a casual use of language that consists of 由什么構(gòu)成 expressive but nonstandard vocabulary, typically of arbitrary任意的, flashy and often ephemeral暫時的 coinages and figures of speech characterized by spontaneity and sometime by raciness. The central characteristic of slang comes from the motive

18、 for its use: a desire for novelty新奇的, for vivid emphasis, for membership in a particular group or class of people, or for being up with the times or a little ahead.apple-polisher 馬屁精例如：She is a real apple-polisher for the way shes crawling around the bossand making eyes at him.她是一個馬屁精，整天圍著老板眉來眼去的。a

19、s busy as a bee （象蜜蜂）忙忙碌碌的 as graceful as a swan （象天鵝）姿態(tài)優(yōu)雅的 as gentle as a lamb （象羊羔）性情溫順的 as cunning as a fox （象狐貍）一樣狡猾的 as poor as a church mouse 一貧如洗 Im beat. 我非常疲乏。beat gums 空洞無物、廢話連篇的講話bell the cat 為眾人的利益承擔(dān)風(fēng)險black sheep 害群之馬Buddy, where is john？ 要上廁所?Bungee jumping 蹦極跳Stop bugging me, man! 喂，別煩

20、我了。blue collar 藍領(lǐng)white collar 白領(lǐng)pink collar 粉領(lǐng)族（指和藍領(lǐng)體力工人相當?shù)呐怨と耍ゞold-collar workers 金領(lǐng)族（一般都有一技之長，對公司工作的方方面面都十分了解，甚至對公司的利潤大小和收益都有直接的重要影響。他們的工作環(huán)境優(yōu)雅，職業(yè)體面，有著豐厚的收入和穩(wěn)固的經(jīng)濟地位）Linguistic taboo 禁忌語A linguistic taboo refers to a word or expression that is prohibited被禁止的 by the “polite” society from general use

21、.Euphemism 委婉語Euphemism comes from the Greek word euphemismos, meaning “to speak with good words.” A euphemism, then, is a mild, indirect or less offensive word or expression substituted when the speaker or writer fears more direct wording might be harsh, unpleasantly direct, or offensive.死亡 Ethnic

22、dialect 少數(shù)民族方言少數(shù)民族方言Black English 黑人英語Black English is an ethnic variety of the English language. It is spoken mostly by a large section of non-middle-class American Blacks. Black English is stigmatized as “bad English”, a purely social attitude that has no linguistic basis. Like other varieties, Bl

23、ack English has some vocabulary of its own. It has a number of distinctive features in its phonological, morphological and syntactic systems which are rule-governed and systematic. 少數(shù)民族方言是一種通常跨越地域界限的社會方言。黑人英語是一種民族變體，常被認為是“低劣的英語”。這種觀點反映的是一種社會態(tài)度，沒有語言根據(jù)。從語言學(xué)的角度來看，黑人英語與其他變體一樣是受規(guī)則支配的，具有系統(tǒng)性。黑人英語的形成是特定的社會環(huán)

24、境、教育背景和經(jīng)濟狀態(tài)所致，這與民族本身無關(guān)。并不是所有的黑人都說黑人英語，也不是說黑人英語的人都是黑人。說什么語言與人所處的社會環(huán)境有關(guān)，與膚色無關(guān)。 黑人英語與其他變體一樣是一個民族身份的象征，是一個民族社會文化的象征。一個人的語言變體的改變意味著社會文化身份的改變和社會價值觀念的改變。這也是黑人不愿意放棄他們語言模式的原因之一。 語音，對詞尾的輔音連綴進行簡化,如 Words Black English Standard English Passed /pa:s/ /pa:st/ Past /pa:s/ /pa:st/ Desk /des/ /desk/ 句法，黑人英語中的”be”動詞經(jīng)

25、常被省略： Black English Standard English Mary interesting. Mary is interesting. Socks mine. The socks are mine. 其次在標準英語中使用”there is”的地方，黑人英語中往往使用”it is”。此外黑人英語中存在雙重否定結(jié)構(gòu)，如: He dont do nothing 在黑人英語中這句話的意思是”He dont do anything.”黑人英語中的雙重否定結(jié)構(gòu)也是體系的：當一個動詞被否定時，句中的不定代詞something, somebody, some變?yōu)閚othing, nobody和

26、none。 Diglossia describes a situation in which two very different varieties of language co-exist in a speech community, each with a distinct range of purely social function and appropriate for certain situations它指并存于同一語言社區(qū)的同一語言的兩種不同的變體，這兩種變體各有其自己的社會功能，在自己特定的交際場合中使用。其中一種變體被視為高功能（層次）變體，通常用于正式場合和書面語，如：

27、用于政府機關(guān)、大眾傳媒、教育部門、宗教領(lǐng)域等；另一種為低功能變體，通常是口語式，用于非正式場合，如：家庭成員或朋友之間的交談，也被高身分者用以對低身分者發(fā)布指示等。 雙言現(xiàn)象Diglossia Bilingualism 雙語現(xiàn)象 Bilingualism refers to a linguistic situation in which two standard languages are used either by an individual or by a group of speakers. A typical example of a bilingual community is a

28、n ethnic ghetto貧民窟 where most, if not all, of its inhabitants居民 are either immigrants or children of immigrants. Bilingualism also occurs to countries which have designated two official languages for nation or regional use. Perfect bilingualism, however is uncommon. A bilingual speaker often uses tw

29、o languages alternatively during a conversation with another bilingual speaker.雙語現(xiàn)象bilingualism 雙語現(xiàn)象指個人或社區(qū)群體可以同時使用兩種標準語言的現(xiàn)象。一個言語社區(qū)不能稱之為雙語社區(qū)，除非在這個社區(qū)中有相當數(shù)量的人通常使用兩種語言。加拿大是典型的雙語國家，在加拿大，英語和法語都是官方語。 具有雙語能力的人在相互交際時經(jīng)常會出現(xiàn)語言切換(code-switch)現(xiàn)象。語言切換現(xiàn)象通常有三種情況：1）可能是由于話題切換所致；2）也有可能是說話人使用某種語言，而聽話人卻以另一種語言回答；3）語言切換現(xiàn)象也

30、可以發(fā)生在句內(nèi)。 Standard and nonstandard languageThe standard language of many countries is also designated as the national or official language.許多國家的標準語同時被指定為全國語或官方語。Language varieties other than the standard are called nonstandard, or vernacular, languages.不同于標準語的變體叫做非標準語，其發(fā)音、語法和詞匯明顯有別于公認的標準。All dialects

31、 of a language are equally effective in expressing ideas.標準語和非標準語無優(yōu)劣之分。推廣普通話宣 傳提綱和宣傳口號，由全國推普周領(lǐng)導(dǎo)小組辦公室2005年修訂。中華人民共和國國家通用語言文字法規(guī)定普通話是國家通用語言。普通話以北京語音為標準音，以北方話為基礎(chǔ)方言，以典范的現(xiàn)代白話文著作為語法規(guī)范中華人民共和國國家通用語言文字法第二條規(guī)定：“國家通用語言文字是普通話和規(guī)范漢字?！?第三條規(guī)定：“國家推廣普通話，推行規(guī)范漢字?！钡谒臈l規(guī)定：“公民有學(xué)習(xí)和使用國家通用語言文字的權(quán)利。國家為公民學(xué)習(xí)和使用國家通用語言文字提供條件。地方各級人民政府

32、及其有關(guān)部門應(yīng)當采取措施，推廣普通話和推行規(guī)范漢字?！钡谖鍡l規(guī)定：“國家通用語言文字的使用應(yīng)當有利于維護國家主權(quán)和民族尊嚴，有利于國家統(tǒng)一和民族團結(jié)，有利于社會主義物質(zhì)文明建設(shè)和精神文明建設(shè)?！?第十條規(guī)定：“學(xué)校及其他教育機構(gòu)以普通話和規(guī)范漢字為基本的教育教學(xué)用語用字。”Idiolectal variation 個人言語變異When an individual speaks, what is actually produced is a unique language system of the speaker, expressed within the overall system of a particular language. Such a personal dialect is referred to as idiolect個人習(xí)語.一個人的語言使用不是始終如一的。他們對同一語言或變體的使用會表現(xiàn)出許多個人的、獨特的變異特征。當然這些變異都是特定語言體系所允許的范圍內(nèi)進行的。個人言語變異導(dǎo)致個人方言(idiolect或personal diale