土木工程專業(yè)英語陳瑛_邵永波主編_全文經(jīng)典翻譯

1、 Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)1.1 Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)和元素的分類和作用1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 靜定和超靜定結(jié)構(gòu) 1.3 Structural Dynamics 結(jié)構(gòu)動(dòng)力學(xué)Chapter 2. Structural Material 土木工程材料2.1 Materials for Concrete and Mix Proportion 砼材料與配比2.2 Propert

2、ies of Concrete 砼的性能2.3 Steel Materials 鋼材料2.4 Structural Steel Shapes 型鋼Chapter 3. Structural Design concepts 結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)3.1 Load conditions and Load Paths 負(fù)載條件和加載路徑3.2 Limit State Design 極限狀態(tài)設(shè)計(jì)Chapter 4. Concrete Structure 鋼筋混凝土結(jié)構(gòu)4.1 Flexural Behavior of Reinforced Concrete Beam 鋼筋混凝土梁的彎曲性能4.2 Shear and

3、Diagonal Tension in Reinforced Concrete Beam 鋼筋混凝土梁的剪切和斜拉4.3Bond , Anchorage, and Development Length 連接，錨固，基本錨固長度Chapter 1 . Structural Mechanics 結(jié)構(gòu)力學(xué)1.1 . Classification and Behavior of Structural Systems and Elements系統(tǒng)結(jié)構(gòu)和元素的分類和作用Common rigid elements include beams, columns or struts, arches, flat

4、plates, singly curved plates, and shells having a variety of different curvatures. Flexible elements include cables (straight and draped) and membranes(planar, singly curved, and doubly curved). In addition, there are a number of other types of structures that are derived from these elements(e.g, fr

5、ames, trsses, geodesic domes, nets, etc. )(figure 1.1)常見的剛性元件包括梁，柱，支撐，圓拱，平板，單向板彎曲面，具有不同的曲率的翹體。柔性元素包括電纜（直披）和膜結(jié)構(gòu)（平面，單向板彎曲面，雙曲面）。此外也有一些來自這些元素（如框架，桁架，測(cè)量短程線，網(wǎng)格等）Frames 框架The frame has rigid joints that are made between vertical and horizontal members. This joint rigidity imparts (給予) a measure of stabili

6、ty against lateral forces. In a framed system both beams and columns are bent or bowed（彎如弓的）as a consequence of the action of the load on the structure. 框架的垂直和水平直接有剛性連接，這樣的節(jié)點(diǎn)給予了一定程度上的穩(wěn)定性抵抗側(cè)向作用力。在一個(gè)框架的系統(tǒng)，梁和柱的彎曲或弓形彎如弓的形狀都是結(jié)構(gòu)上負(fù)載的作用效果。Trusses 桁架Trusses are structural members made by assembling short, st

7、raight members into triangulated patterns. The resultant （組合的, 合成的）structure is rigid as a result of the exact （精確的) way the individual line elements are positioned relative to one another. Some patterns (e.g. a pattern of squares rather than triangles) do not necessarily yield a structure that is r

8、igid (unless joints are treated in the same way as in framed structures). A truss composed of discrete elements is bent in an overall way under the action of an applied transverse loading in much the same way that a beam is bent. Individual truss members, however, are not subject to bending but are

9、only either compressed or pulled upon. 桁架結(jié)構(gòu)構(gòu)件是通過短直桿組裝成三角形的圖案。組合的結(jié)果的精確方式相對(duì)于彼此的位置的各行元素的結(jié)構(gòu)是剛性的。不一定會(huì)產(chǎn)生某些剛性的模型（例如，一個(gè)模型的平方不一定是三角形圖案）（除非在框架結(jié)構(gòu)中一樣的處理）。由分立元件組成的桁架在大致一樣的方式，彎曲梁所施加的橫向載荷的作用下，在一個(gè)整體方式的彎曲。個(gè)人桁架構(gòu)件，不能彎曲只能壓縮或拉后。Arches拱門 An arch is a curved, line-forming structural member that spans between two points. T

10、he exact shape of the curve and the nature of the loading are critical determinants as to whether the resultant assembly is stable. When shapes are formed by simply stacking rigid block elements, the resultant structure is functional and stable only when the action of the load is to induce in-plane

11、forces that cause the structure to compress uniformly. Structures of this type cannot carry loads that induce elongations or any pronounced type of bowing in the member (the blocks simply pull apart and failure occurs). The strength of a block structure is due exclusively to the positioning of indiv

12、idual elements, since blocks are typically either simply rested one on another or mortared together. The positioning is, in turn, dependent on the exact type of loading involved. The resultant structure is thus rigid only under very particular circumstances.圓拱 一個(gè)拱形的彎曲線形成的結(jié)構(gòu)部件，兩點(diǎn)之間的跨越。曲線的精確性質(zhì)和性質(zhì)是所得到的

13、組件是否是穩(wěn)定的關(guān)鍵決定因素。當(dāng)通過簡(jiǎn)單地堆疊剛性塊體元件的形狀形成的結(jié)構(gòu)是功能性的和穩(wěn)定的，又有當(dāng)負(fù)載的作用是誘導(dǎo)面的力量時(shí)才導(dǎo)致結(jié)構(gòu)的均勻壓縮。這種類型的結(jié)構(gòu)不能進(jìn)行負(fù)載誘導(dǎo)伸長或任何明顯的拉伸（只需拉開塊發(fā)生故障）。嵌段結(jié)構(gòu)的強(qiáng)度是由于單個(gè)元素導(dǎo)致的，由于塊通常是在躺在另一個(gè)上或砂漿砌在一起。只有在非常特殊的情況下，所得到的的結(jié)構(gòu)才是剛性的。The rigid arch is frequently used in modern building. It is curved similarly to block arches but is made of one continuous pi

14、ece of deformed rigid material. If rigid arches are properly shaped, they can carry a load to supports while being subject only to axial compression, and no bending occurs. The rigid arch is better able to carry variations in the design loading than is its block counterpart made of individual pieces

15、. Many types of rigid arches exist and are often characterized by their support conditions (fixed, two-hinged, three-hinged).現(xiàn)代建筑中常用的剛性拱，同樣是彎曲的阻止拱，但它是由一塊連續(xù)變形的剛性材料制成的。如果制成剛性拱的形狀，它們可以承受的負(fù)載支座僅受軸向壓縮的同時(shí)并沒有發(fā)生彎曲。剛性拱是能夠更好地進(jìn)行變化的塊對(duì)應(yīng)的單件制成的。存在許多類型的剛性拱的特點(diǎn)常常是它們的支持條件（固定，雙絞鏈、三鉸鏈）Walls and Plates墻板Walls and flat pla

16、tes are rigid surface-forming structures. A load-bearing wall can typically carry both vertical loads and lateral loads (wind, earthquake) along its length. Resistance to out-of-plane forces in block walls is marginal. A flat plate is typically used horizontally and carries loads by bending to its s

17、upports. Plate structures are normally made of reinforced concrete or steel.墻板 墻壁和平板表面形成的結(jié)構(gòu)是剛性的。承重墻通?？梢赃M(jìn)行沿其長度的垂直荷載和側(cè)向荷載（風(fēng)。地震）。砌塊墻的平面的抵抗力是微不足道的。通常用于平板進(jìn)行水平和通過彎曲其支持負(fù)載。板結(jié)構(gòu)通常是由鋼筋混凝土或剛組成的。Horizontal plates can also be made by assembling patterns of short, rigid line elements. Three-dimensional triangulati

18、on schemes are used to impart stiffness to the resultant assembly.水平板也可以通過組裝短，剛性線的模式。三維三角形測(cè)量設(shè)計(jì)是用來賦予所得到的組件的剛度的。Long, narrow rigid plates can also be joined along their long edges and used to span horizontally in beam-like fashion. These structures, called folded plates, have the potential for spannin

19、g fairly large distances.長，狹窄的剛性板也可以加入和使用到時(shí)尚的水平跨越梁中。這些結(jié)構(gòu)，被稱為折疊的板，有可能跨越相當(dāng)大的距離。Cylindrical Shells and Vaults 柱形殼和拱頂Cylindrical barrel shells and vaults are examples of singly curved-plate structure. A barrel shell spans longitudinally such that the curve is perpendicular to the direction of the span.

20、When fairly long, a barrel shell behaves much like a beam with a curved cross section. Barrel shells are invariably made of rigid materials (e.g., reinforced concrete or steel). A vault, by contrast, is a singly curved structure that spans transversely. A vault can be conceived of as basically a con

21、tinuous arch.柱形殼和拱頂 圓柱型的筒和拱頂都是單獨(dú)的弧形板式結(jié)構(gòu)的例子。一個(gè)鏡筒外殼跨越縱向曲線垂直的方向的弧度。當(dāng)足夠長的時(shí)候，每筒外殼采用的弧形截面梁很像。筒，炮彈等都提出了硬質(zhì)材料（如鋼筋混凝土或鋼）。相反的，儲(chǔ)藏庫是一個(gè)單獨(dú)的弧形結(jié)構(gòu)，橫向跨越。儲(chǔ)藏庫可以設(shè)想基本是是一個(gè)連續(xù)的拱。Spherical Shells and Domes球殼和圓頂A wide variety of doubly curved surface structures are in use .These include structures that are portions of spheres

22、and those that form warped surface (e.g , the hyperbolic paraboloid ). The number of shapes possible is actually boundless. Probably the most common doubly curved structures is the spherical shell. It is convenient to think of this structure as a rotated arch. This analogy, however, is actually misl

23、eading with respect to how the structure actually carries loads because of the fact that loadings include circumferential forces in spherical shells which do not exist in arches. Domed structures can be made of stacked blocks or a continuous rigid material (reinforced concrete). Shells and domes are

24、 very efficient structures capable of spanning large distances using a minimum of material.球形殼 各種各樣的雙曲面結(jié)構(gòu)都在使用中，這些包括球部和它所形成的扭曲的表面的結(jié)構(gòu)（例如，雙曲拋物線）。一些可能的形狀實(shí)際上是無限的。也許最常見的雙曲面結(jié)構(gòu)是球殼。它認(rèn)為這種結(jié)構(gòu)的旋轉(zhuǎn)拱很方便。但是，這個(gè)比喻實(shí)際上是誤導(dǎo)了結(jié)構(gòu)是如何進(jìn)行負(fù)載的。因?yàn)?，載荷包括切線力在球殼中不存在拱門。圓頂結(jié)構(gòu)，可以由層疊塊或連續(xù)的剛性材料（鋼筋混凝土）組成。殼頂結(jié)構(gòu)是非常有效的，它能夠用最少的材料覆蓋很大的距離。Cables（索）Ca

25、bles are flexible structural elements. The shape they assume （take on ）under a loading depends on the nature and magnitude of the load. When a cable is simple pulled on at either end, it assumes a straight shape. This type of cable is often called a tie-rod.When a cable is used to span between two p

26、oints and carry an external point load or series of point loads, it deforms into a shape made up of a series of straight-line segments. When a continuous load （distributed load,）is carried, the cable deforms into a continuously curving shape. The self weight of the cable itself produces such a caten

27、ary curve Suspension cables can be used to span extremely large distances索 索是可彎曲的結(jié)構(gòu)元件。它們呈現(xiàn)加載的形狀取決于負(fù)載的性質(zhì)和嚴(yán)重程度。當(dāng)很簡(jiǎn)單地拉索的任一端時(shí)，它假定了直板造型。這種類型的索通常被稱為轉(zhuǎn)向橫拉桿。當(dāng)索用于跨越兩個(gè)點(diǎn)之間并進(jìn)行外部負(fù)載或一系列的點(diǎn)荷載，變形的形狀由一系列的直線段。當(dāng)進(jìn)行連續(xù)負(fù)載（分布荷載），索變形成了連續(xù)彎曲的形狀。索本身的自重產(chǎn)生這樣的懸鏈線，吊索可用于跨越非常大的距離。Membranes, Tents, and Nets 膜、 帳篷、網(wǎng) A membrane is a thin

28、, flexible sheet. A common tent is made of membranes surfaces. Both simple and complex forms can be created using membranes. For surfaces of double curvature, such as a spherical surface, however, the actual surface would have to be made as an assembly of much smaller segments, since most membranes

29、are typically available only in flat sheets. A further implication of using a flexible membrane to create the surface is that it either has to be suspended with the convex side pointing downward or, if used with the convex side pointing upward, supplemented by some mechanism to its shape. Pneumatic,

30、 or air-inflated, structures. The shape of the membrane is maintained by the internal air pressure inside the structure. Another mechanism is to apply external jacking forces that stretch the membrane into the desired shape. Various stressed-skin structures are of this general type. The need to pret

31、ension the skin, however, imposes various limitations on the shape that can be formed. Spherical surfaces, for example, are very difficult to pretension by external jacking forces, while others, such as the hyperbolic paraboloid, can be handled with comparative ease. 膜、 帳篷、網(wǎng) 是一個(gè)薄的膜，柔性板，一個(gè)常見的帳篷是由膜表面構(gòu)

32、成的。既簡(jiǎn)單又復(fù)雜的形式可以創(chuàng)建使用膜。對(duì)于雙曲率，如球面的表面。但是實(shí)際的表面將要作為一個(gè)組件的更小的段，因?yàn)榇蠖鄶?shù)膜通常僅適用于平板。用一柔性膜片創(chuàng)建表面的再一個(gè)含義是，它要么必須暫停與凸側(cè)朝向下方，或者，如果使用凸側(cè)朝上，通過一些機(jī)制來補(bǔ)充其形狀。充氣式膜結(jié)構(gòu)的膜形狀是由部的結(jié)構(gòu)的部氣壓。另一種機(jī)制是應(yīng)用外部抬升力，拉伸膜成所需的形狀。強(qiáng)調(diào)皮膚的各種結(jié)構(gòu)的這種通用類型，然而，需要預(yù)拉伸皮膚施加各種條件的限制，可以形成的形狀。球的表面，是非常困難的外部頂力，但是其他的，如雙曲拋物面可以比較容易處理。Nets are very analogous to membrane skins. By

33、allowing the mesh opening to vary as needed, a wide variety of surface shapes can be formed. An advantage of using crossed cables is that the positioning of the cables mitigates fluttering due to wind suctions and pressures. In addition, tension forces are typically induced into the cables by jackin

34、g devices, so that the whole surface is turned into a type of stretched skin. This also gives the roof stability and resistance to flutter.網(wǎng)是非常類似的膜皮，通過使網(wǎng)眼根據(jù)需要進(jìn)行變化，各種各樣的表面形狀可以形成。使用交叉索的一個(gè)優(yōu)點(diǎn)是，使索的定位減輕由于風(fēng)的吸力和壓力產(chǎn)生的飄動(dòng)。此外，力通常誘導(dǎo)索頂裝置，使整個(gè)表面變成一種類型的伸展。這也給了頂板穩(wěn)定性和抗顫性。1.2 2.Basic Issues in the Analysis and Design o

35、f Structures結(jié)構(gòu)分析與設(shè)計(jì)中的基本問題 1 Fundamental Structural Phenomena1. 基本結(jié)構(gòu)現(xiàn)象Structure components could break apart or deform badly. The forces causing overturning or collapse come from the specific environmental (e.g., wind, earthquakes, occupancies )or from the self-weight of the form itself. These same a

36、pplied loadings produce internal force in a structure that stress the material used and may cause it to fail or deform. There are several fundamental ways in which failure can occur.結(jié)構(gòu)組件可以破壞或嚴(yán)重變形，由力的作用造成的傾覆或來自特定的環(huán)境（例如，風(fēng)，地震，占用）再或者是本身的自重的形式。這些一樣的應(yīng)用負(fù)荷產(chǎn)生的力在一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)中使用的材料可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致其變形或失敗。有幾個(gè)基本的方法，其中可能會(huì)發(fā)生故障。A firs

37、t set of concerns deals with the overall stability of a work. As a whole unit, a structure might overturn, slide, or twist about its base, particularly when subjected to horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces. Sliding under its own weight. Overturning or twisting need not be caused only by ho

38、rizontally acting forces. A work might simply be out of balance under its own self-weight and overturning. The use of wide, rigid foundations helps prevent overturning, as does the use of special foundation elements such as piles capable of carrying tension forces.第一組關(guān)注處理工作的整體穩(wěn)定性。作為一個(gè)整體單元，結(jié)構(gòu)可能會(huì)傾覆，滑移

39、，扭轉(zhuǎn)。尤其是當(dāng)風(fēng)或地震的水平作用時(shí)，其自身重量下滑，翻倒或扭轉(zhuǎn)不只是引起水平作用力。在自身的重量和傾覆的作用下，可能只是失去了平衡。使用寬，剛性的基礎(chǔ)，有助于防止傾覆，不使用例如能夠攜帶力樁的特殊要數(shù)。A second set of concerns deals with internal, or relational, stability. If the parts of a structure are not properly arranged in space or interconnected appropriately, an entire assembly(組裝)can coll

40、apse internally. Collapses of this type invariably involve large relative movements within the structure itself. Assemblies may be internally stable under one loading condition and unstable under another. Horizontally acting wind or earthquake forces, in particular, cause collapses of this kind. The

41、re are several basic mechanisms-walls, frame action, cross bracing for making an assembly internally stable.第二組關(guān)于處理部關(guān)系穩(wěn)定。如果有部分的結(jié)構(gòu)空間組合不合理，或真?zhèn)€組裝不合理，可以適當(dāng)?shù)叵嗷ミB接，部折疊。這種類型導(dǎo)致的坍塌總是涉與大型結(jié)構(gòu)本身的相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)。組件可能是一個(gè)裝載條件下部穩(wěn)定和不穩(wěn)定的根據(jù)項(xiàng)。水平因素風(fēng)或地震尤其會(huì)使其坍塌。有幾個(gè)基本的機(jī)制墻壁，框架動(dòng)作，交叉支撐組件的部穩(wěn)定。A third set of concerns deals with the strength

42、and stiffness of constituent elements.There are many structure issues that revolve around the strength of component parts of a structure. These failures, which may or may not lead to total collapse, may be caused by excessive tension, compression, bending, shear, torsional, bearing forces, or deform

43、ations that are developed internally in the structure as a consequence of the applied loadings. Associated with each force state are internal stresses that actually exist within the fabric of the material itself. By carefully designing components in response to the force state present, the actual st

44、resses developed in the components can be controlled to safe levels.第三組的關(guān)注處理的強(qiáng)度和剛度的結(jié)構(gòu)元素。很多結(jié)構(gòu)圍繞一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)組成部分的強(qiáng)度問題。這些故障可能會(huì)導(dǎo)致全面崩潰，可能是由于過度緊，壓縮，彎曲，剪切，扭轉(zhuǎn)，軸承，或變形，在結(jié)構(gòu)部開發(fā)的應(yīng)用負(fù)荷的后果。每個(gè)受力狀態(tài)，實(shí)際上存在于物質(zhì)材料本身的應(yīng)力。通過仔細(xì)地設(shè)計(jì)組件的受力狀態(tài)，開發(fā)組件的實(shí)際應(yīng)力可以被控制到安全水平。2. Structural Stability結(jié)構(gòu)穩(wěn)定性A Fundamental consideration in designing a struct

45、ure is that of assuring its stability under any type of possible loading condition. All structures undergo some shape changes under load.In a stable structure deformations induced by the action of the load tend to restore the structure to its original shape after the load has been removed. In an uns

46、table structure, the deformations induced by a load are typically massive and often tend to continue increasing as long as the load is applied. An unstable structure does not generate internal forces that tend to restore the structure to its original configuration. Unstable structures quite often co

47、llapse completely and instantaneously as a load is applied to them. It is the fundamental responsibility of the structural designer to assure that a proposed structure does indeed form a stable configuration.設(shè)計(jì)結(jié)構(gòu)的最基本需要考慮的問題，是任何類型的可能負(fù)載的條件下確保其穩(wěn)定性。所有的結(jié)構(gòu)進(jìn)行一些穩(wěn)定結(jié)構(gòu)的變形引起的負(fù)載的作用下的形狀變化，趨向于回訪到初始形狀的結(jié)構(gòu)已經(jīng)被刪除。在不穩(wěn)定的

48、結(jié)構(gòu)中，由負(fù)載引起的變形通常是大規(guī)模的，并且常常施加載荷時(shí)，只要繼續(xù)增加。一個(gè)不穩(wěn)定的結(jié)構(gòu)不會(huì)產(chǎn)生部的力量，往往恢復(fù)到原來的配置結(jié)構(gòu)。經(jīng)常不穩(wěn)定結(jié)構(gòu)完全折疊和瞬間作為負(fù)載被施加到它們身上。它的基本結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì)師的責(zé)任，以確保建議的結(jié)構(gòu)確實(shí)形成一個(gè)穩(wěn)定的配置。Stability is a crucial issue in the design of structures that are assemblies of discrete elements. For example, the post-and-beam structure illustrated in figure 1.2a is app

49、arently stable. Any horizontal force, however, tends to cause deformations of the type indicated in figure 1.2b. clearly, the structure has no capacity to resist horizontal load, nor does it have any mechanism that tends to restore it to its initial shape after the horizontal load is removed. The la

50、rge changes in angle that occur between members characterize an unstable structure that is beginning to collapse. This particular structure will collapse almost instantaneously under load. Consequently, this particular pattern of members is referred to as a collapse mechanism.穩(wěn)定是一個(gè)至關(guān)重要的問題，在設(shè)計(jì)分立元件的組件

51、結(jié)構(gòu)。例如，梁柱結(jié)構(gòu)示意圖1.2a所示顯然是穩(wěn)定的。然而，在任何水平方向的力往往會(huì)造成在圖1.2b的不同變形。結(jié)構(gòu)清楚，有沒有能力抵抗水平荷載，也沒有任何機(jī)制，傾向于恢復(fù)到其初始形狀，水平荷載后刪除。出現(xiàn)大的變化角度特征不穩(wěn)定的結(jié)構(gòu)開始崩潰。這種特殊的結(jié)構(gòu)將在負(fù)載下瞬間崩潰。因此，這個(gè)特定的圖案被稱為“崩潰機(jī)制”There are really only a few fundamental ways of converting a self-standing structure of the general type shown in figure 1.2a fron an unstable

52、to a stable configuration. These are illustarated in figure 1.2d. the first is to add a diagonal member to the structure. The structure cannot now undergo the parallelogram indicated in figure 1,2b without a dramatic release in the length of the diagonal member (this would not occur if the diagonal

53、were adequately sized to take the forces involved). Another method used to assure stability is through shear walls. These are rigid planar surface elements that inherently resist shape changes of the type illustrated. A reinforced concrete or masonry wall can be used as a shear wall. Either a full o

54、r a partial wall can be used (the required extent of a partial wall depends on the magnitudes of the forces involved). A final method used to achieve stability is through stopping the large angular changes between members that are associated with collapse by assuring that the nature of the nature of

55、 the connections between members is such that their angular relationship remains a constant value under any loading. This is done by making a rigid joint between members. This is a very common form of joint.真的只有一項(xiàng)獨(dú)立的通用型數(shù)字1.2a不穩(wěn)定的一個(gè)穩(wěn)定的配置結(jié)構(gòu)轉(zhuǎn)換的一些基本方法。這些在圖1.2d上。成為第一個(gè)是增加一個(gè)對(duì)角構(gòu)件的結(jié)構(gòu)。結(jié)構(gòu)現(xiàn)在不能接受對(duì)角線的長度（如果對(duì)角線有足夠大

56、的力量，這種情況不會(huì)發(fā)生）沒有一個(gè)戲劇性的釋放b圖1,2所示的平行四邊形。用來保證穩(wěn)定性的另一種方法是通過剪力墻。這些平面的表面是剛性的元素本質(zhì)上所示類型的抗蝕劑形狀的變化。可用于鋼筋混凝土或磚石墻作為剪力墻。完整或部分的壁可用于（部分壁所需的程度上依賴于所涉與的力的大?。?。用于實(shí)現(xiàn)穩(wěn)定的最后一種方法是通過停止大角度變化，確保結(jié)構(gòu)之間的連接的性質(zhì)就是這樣原理的性質(zhì)，它們的角的關(guān)系仍然是一個(gè)恒定值。這是通過成員之間的剛性連接，是一個(gè)非常普遍的形式的聯(lián)合。There are, of course, variants on these basic methods of assuring stabil

57、ity. Still most structures composed of discrete elements rely on one or the other of these basic approaches for stability. More than one approach can be used in a structure (e.g. a structure having both rigid joints and a diagonal), but a measure of redundancy is obviously involved.當(dāng)然，在這些基本的方法保證穩(wěn)定的變

58、體。仍然由分立元件組成的結(jié)構(gòu)依賴于一個(gè)或另一個(gè)穩(wěn)定這兩種基本方法。在一個(gè)結(jié)構(gòu)中，可以使用一個(gè)以上的方法（例如，具有兩個(gè)剛性接頭和對(duì)角線結(jié)構(gòu)），但顯然這涉與一定程度的冗余。1.2 Determinate and Indeterminate Structures 靜定和超靜定結(jié)構(gòu)1.2Determinate and Indeterminate Structures靜定與超靜定結(jié)構(gòu)1.2.1 Statically Determinate Structures超靜定結(jié)構(gòu) Structures are said to be statically determinate when the forces and reactions produced by a given loading can be calculated using only the equations of equilibrium. The simply supported beam shown in Figure 1.3 is statically determinate. We can solve for the three unknown reactions using the equations of equilibrium and then calculate the internal