新編簡明英語語言學教程筆記考試必備

1、Chapter one Introduction一、定義1. 語言學LinguisticsLinguistics is generally defined as the scientific study of language.2. 普通語言學General LinguisticsThe study of language as a whole is often called General linguistics.3. 語言languageLanguage is a system of arbitrary vocal symbols used for human communication.

2、 語言是人類用來交際的任意性的有聲符號體系。4. 識別特征Design FeaturesIt refers to the defining poperties of human language that distinguish it from any animal system of communication.語言識別特征是指人類語言區(qū)別與其他任何動物的交際體系的限定性特征。 Arbitrariness 任意性Productivity 多產(chǎn)性Duality 雙重性Displacement 移位性Cultural transmission文化傳遞arbitrarinessThere is n

3、o logical connection between meanings and sounds.P.S the arbitrary nature of language is a sign of sophistication and it makes it possible for language to have an unlimited source of expressionsProductivityAnimals are quite limited in the messages they are able to send.DualityLanguage is a system, w

4、hich consists of two sets of structures ,or two levels. DisplacementLanguage can be used to refer to contexts removed from the immediate situations of the speaker.Cultural transmissionHuman capacity for language has a genetic basis, but we have to be taught and learned the details of any language sy

5、stem. this showed that language is culturally transmitted. not by instinct. animals are born with the capacity to produce the set of calls peculiar to their species.5. 語言能力CompetenceCompetence is the ideal users knowledge of the rules of his language.6. 語言運用performancePerformance is the actual reali

6、zation of this knowledge in linguistic communication. 語言運用是所掌握的規(guī)則在語言交際中的體現(xiàn)。7. 歷時語言學Diachronic linguisticsThe study of language change through time. a diachronic study of language is a historical study, which studies the historical development of language over a period oftime.8. 共時語言學Synchronical lin

7、guisticsThe study of a given language at a given time.9. 語言langueThe abstract linguistic system shared by all members of a speech community.10. 言語paroleThe realization of langue in actual use.11. 規(guī)定性PrescriptiveIt aims to lay down rules for ”correct” behavior, to tell people what they should say and

8、 what should not say.12. 描述性DescriptiveA linguistic study describes and analyzes the language people actually use.二、知識點1.language is not an isolated phenomenon, its a social activity carried out in a certain social environment by human beings.語言不是一種孤立的現(xiàn)象，而是人類在一定的社會環(huán)境下進行的一種社會活動。 提出了語言的識別特征design feat

9、ures3.the word language preceded by the zero-article ,it implies that linguistics studies not any particular language.Language 一詞前不加冠詞說明語言學家不只研究一種特定的語言。最先引起語言學家注意的是語言的發(fā)音。三、問答題1.what are major branches of linguistics? what does each study?Phonetics-its defined as the study of the phonic medium of lan

10、guage, its concerned with all the sounds that occur in the worlds languages.Phonology-the study of sounds systems the inventory of distinctive sounds that occur in a language and the patterns into which they fall.Morphology-Its a branch of a grammar which studies the internal structure of words and

11、the rules by which words are formed.Syntax-it's a subfield of linguistics that studies the sentence structure of a language.Semantics-Its simply defined as the study of meaning in abstraction.Pragmatics-the study of meaning in context of words.Sociolinguistics the study of language with referenc

12、e to society.Psycholinguistics-the study of language with reference to the working of the mind. Applied linguistics-the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning.2.why do we say language is arbitrary?Language is arbitrary in the sense that there is no intrin

13、sic connection between the sounds that people use and the objects to which these sounds refer.The fact that different languages have different words for the same object is a good illustration of the arbitrary nature of language, its only our tacit agreement of utterance and concept at work and not a

14、ny innate relationship bound up in the utterance.A typical example to illustrate the arbitrariness of language is a rose by any other name would smell as sweet.3. what makes modern linguistics different from traditional grammar?Modern linguistics is descriptive, its investigations are based on authe

15、ntic and mainly spoken language date.現(xiàn)代語言學是描述性的，其研究以確實可靠的、主要以口語形式的資料為基礎。traditional grammar is prescriptive. it is based on high written language. 傳統(tǒng)語法是規(guī)定性的，研究高級書面語。4.Is modern linguistics mainly synchronic or diachronic? whyModern linguistics is mainly synchronic, focusing on the present-day langua

16、ge. unless the various states of a language are successfully studied, it will not be possible to describe language from a diachronic point of view.現(xiàn)代語言學主要是共時性的，重點研究現(xiàn)代語言。除非對語言的各種狀態(tài)都進行成功的研究，否則很難從歷時性角度對語言進行描述。5.which enjoys priority in modern linguistics, speech or writings?Speech enjoys for the follow

17、ing reasons:Speech precedes writing in terms of evolution.A large amount of communication is carried out in speech than in writing. speech is the form in which infants acquire their native language.6.how is Saussures distinction between langue and parole similar to Chomskys ? Both Saussure and Choms

18、ky make the distinction between the abstract language system and the actual use of language. their purpose is to single out the language system for serious studyTwo linguists idea differ in that Saussure took a sociological view of language, Chomsky looks at language from a psychological point of vi

19、ew, competence is a property of the mind of each individual.6.the distinction between langue and parole?langue is abstract, relatively stable parole is concrete, varies from person to person, from situation to situation.1/ What is linguistics?什么是語言學？Linguistics is generally defined as the scientific

20、 study of language. It studies not any particular language, but languages in general.2/ The scope of linguistics語言學的研究范疇The study of language as a whole is often called general linguistics. (普通語言學 The study of sounds, which are used in linguistic communication, is called phonetics.（語音學）The study of

21、how sounds are put together and used in communication is called phonology. （音系學）The study of the way in which morphemes are arranged to form words are called morphology. （形態(tài)學）The study of how morphemes and words are combined to form sentences is called syntax （句法學）The study of meaning in language is

22、 called semantics. （語義學）The study of meaning in context of use is called pragmatics. （語用學）The study of language with reference to society is called socio-linguistics. （社會語言學）The study of language with reference to the working of mind is called psycho-linguistics. （心理語言學）The study of applications (as

23、 the recovery of speech ability is generally known as applied linguistics. （應用語言學） But in a narrow sense, applied linguistics refers to the application of linguistic principles and theories to language teaching and learning, especially the teaching of foreign and second language.Other related branch

24、es include anthropological linguistics, （人類語言學） neurological linguistics, （神經(jīng)語言學） mathematical linguistics, （數(shù)字語言學）and computational linguistics. （計算機語言學）3/ Some important distinctions in linguistics語言學研究中的幾對基本概念Chapter Two Phonology一、定義1. 寬式音標Broad transcriptionThe transcription of speech sounds wi

25、th letter symbols only.2. 窄式音標Narrow transcriptionThe transcription of speech sound with letters symbols and the diacritics.3. 清音V oicelessWhen the vocal cords are drawn wide apart ,letting air go through without causing vibration ,the sounds produced in such a condition are called voiceless sounds.

26、4. 濁音V oicingSounds produced while the vocal cords are vibrating are called voiced sounds.5. 元音V owelThe sounds in the production of which no articulators come very close together and the air stream passes through the vocal tract without obstruction are called vowels.6. 輔音ConsonantsThe sounds in the

27、 production of which there is an obstruction of the air stream atsome point of the vocal tract are called consonants.7. 音位PhonemeThe basic unit in phonology, its a collection of distinctive phonetic features.8. 音位變體AllophonesDifferent phones which can represent a phoneme in different environments ar

28、e called the allophones of that phoneme.9. 音素phoneA phonetic unit or segment. it doesnot necessarily distinguish meaning, its a speech sound we use when speaking a language.10. 最小對立對Minimal pairWhen two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment which occurs in the same

29、place in the strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair.11. 超切分特征SuprasegmentalThe phonemic features that occur above the level of the segment are called suprasegmental features. the main suprasegmental features include stress ,intonation and tone.12. 互補分布complementary distribution P35Tw

30、o allophones of the same phoneme are said to be in complementary distribution.13. 語言的語音媒介Phonic medium of languageThe limited range of sounds which are meaningful in human communication and are of interest to linguistic studies are the phonic medium of language.在人類交際中有著一定意義、對語言學研究來說舉足輕重。有限的聲音是語音媒介。1

31、4. 爆破音stopsWhen a obstruction created by the speech organs is total or complete, the speech sound produced with the obstruction released and the air passing out again is called a stop or a plosive.they areb p t d k g二、知識點1.statistics resulting from careful investigations show that there have been ov

32、er5,000languages in the world, about two thirds of which have not had written form.2. of the two media of language,speech is more basic than writing.3.Phonetic 組成Articulatory phonetics 發(fā)音語音學longest established, mostly developed Auditory phonetics 聽覺語音學Acoustic phonetics 聲學語音學4.articulatoryApparatus

33、/Organs of SpeechPharyngeal cavity 咽腔Oral . 口腔greatest source of modification of air stream found here Na sal 鼻腔5.The tongue is the most flexible, responsible for more varieties of articulation thanany other, the extreme back of the tongue can be raised towards the uvula and aspeech sound can be thu

34、s produced as is used in Arabic and French.6.Obstruction between the back of the tongue and the velar area results in thepronunciation ofk andg,the narrowing of space between the hard palate and thefront of the tongue leads to the soundj;the obstruction created between the tip of thetongue and the a

35、lveolar ridge results in the soundstandd.7.nasal consonants: m / n / 9. A Phone is a phonetic unit or segment.10.Sequential rules例子If three consonants should cluster together at the beginning of a word, thecombination should obey the following three rules:the first phoneme must be /s/the second phon

36、eme must be /p/ or /t/ or /k/the third phoneme must be /l/ or /r/ or /w11.English has four basic types of intonation:Falling tone;Rising tone;Fall-rise tone;Rise-fall tone三、問答題1.what are the three branches of phonetics? how do they contribute to the study ofspeech sound?Articulatory describes the wa

37、y our speech organs work to produce the speechsounds and how they differ.Auditory-studies the physical properties of speech sounds, reaches the importantconclusion that phonetic identity is only a theoretical ideal.Acoustic-studies the physical properties of speech sounds ,the way sound travel fromt

38、he speaker to the hearer.發(fā)音語音學描述了我們的發(fā)音器官如何發(fā)出語音，以及這些語音為何有所不同。聽覺語音學研究語音的物理性質，得出了重要結論，即語音同一只是理論上的理想。聲學語音學研究語音的物理性質，研究語音從說話者到聽話者之間的傳播方式。2.how are the English consonants classified?By place of articulation and By manner of articulation3.how do phonetics and phonology differ in their focus of study? who d

39、o you thinkwill be more interested in the different between sayiandi,p andph,a phoneticianor a philologist? why?語音學和音位學的研究中心有何不同? 語音學家和音位學家哪一個更關心清晰音的區(qū)別? 為什么?Phonetics description of all speech sounds and their find differences.Phonology description of sound systems of particular languages and how so

40、undsfunction to distinguish meaning.A phonetician would be more interested in such differences cos such differences willnot cos differences in meaning.4.what s a phone? how is it different from a phoneme? how are allophones related to aPhone a speech sound ,a phonetic unit.Phoneme-a collection of ab

41、stract sound features, a phonological unit.Allophones-actual realization of a phoneme in different phonetic contexts.5.what is a minimal pair and a minimal set? why is it important to identify theminimal set in a language?為什么區(qū)分最小對立組在一種語言中非常重要?Minimal pairtwo sound combinations identical in every way

42、 except in one soundelement that occurs in the same position.除了出現(xiàn)在同一位置的一個語音成分不同外, 其他部分都一樣的兩個語音組合.Minimal seta group of sound combinations with the above feature.一組具有上述特征的語音組合.By identifying the minimal pair or the minimal set of a language, a philologist canidentify its phonemes.通過分析一種語言的最小對立對或最小對立組

43、, 音位學家能辨別出它的音位.6.Explain with examples how broad transcription and narrow one transcription differ?Broad transcriptionone letter symbol for one sound.Narrow transcription diacritics are added to the one-letter symbols to show thefiner differences between sounds.7.explain the sequential rule ,the ass

44、imilation rule and the deletion rule.有序規(guī)則Sequential rulesRules that govern the combination of sounds in a particular language.同化規(guī)則Assimilation rulesThe assimilation rule assimila tes one sound to another by copying a feature of asequential phoneme, thus making the two phones similar.省略規(guī)則Deletion rul

45、eIts a phonological rule which tells us when a sound is to be deleted although itsorthographically represented.Chapter Three Morphology一、定義1. 詞素MorphemeThe basic unit in the study of morphology and the smallest meaningful unit oflanguage.2. 自由詞素Free MorphemeFree morphemes are independent units of me

46、aning and can be used freely all bythemselves.3. 黏著詞素Bound morphemesBound morphemes are these morphemes that canot be used by themselves, must becombined with other morphemes to form words that can be used independently.4. 詞根RootRoot is the base form of a word which cannot be further analyzed withou

47、t total loss5. 詞綴AffixThe collective term for the type of formative that can be used only when added toanother morpheme.6. 曲折詞綴inflectional affixesThe manifestation of grammatical relationships through the addition of inflectionalaffixes, such as number, tense, degree and case.7. 派生詞綴Derivational af

48、fixesThe manifestation of relation between stems and affixes through the addition ofderivational affixes.8. 詞干StemA stem is the existing form to which a derivational affix can be added. a stem canbe a bound root ,a free morpheme, or a derived form itself.9. 形態(tài)學規(guī)則Morphological rulesThey are rules tha

49、t govern which affix can be added to what type of stem to form anew word.10. 前綴PrefixPrefixes modify the meaning of the stem ,but usually do not change the part ofspeech of the original word, exceptions are the prefixes be- and en(m-11. 后綴SuffixSuffixes are added to the end of stems, they modify the

50、 meaning of the originalword and in many cases change its part of speech. 3.In using the morphological rules,we must guard against Over-generalization.二、知識點Inflectional morphology1.MorphologyDerivational morphologyFree morphemesMorphemes RootBound morphemes Inflectional affixesAffixes PrefixDerivati

51、onalaffixes2.some words maybe said to contain a root morpheme. Suffix4.Compound features:orthographically, a compound can be written as one word, two separate words withor without a hyphen in between.Syntactically, the part of speech of a compound is determined by the last element.semantically, the

52、meaning of a compound is idiomatic, not calculable from themeanings of all its componentChapter 5 Semantics一、定義1. 命名論The naming theoryThe naming theory, one of the oldest notions concerning meaning, and also a very primitive one was proposed by the ancient Greek scholar Plato. According to this theo

53、ry, the linguistic forms or symbols, in other words,the words used in a language are taken to be labels of the objects they stand for, so words are just names or labels for things.2. 意念論The conceptualist viewIt holds that there is no direct link between a linguistic form and what it refers to; rathe

54、r ,in the interpretation of meaning they are linked through the mediation of concepts in the mind.3. 語境論ConceptualismIts based on the presumption that one can derive meaning from or reduce meaning to observable contexts. her are two kinds of context: the situational and the linguistic context.4. 行為主

55、義論BehaviorismIt refers to the attempted to define the meaning of a language form as the” situation in which the speaker utters it and the response it calls forth in the hearer”. this theory somewhat close to conceptualism emphasizes on the psychological response.5. 意義SenseIts concerned with the inhe

56、rent meaning of the linguistic form. Its the collection of all the features of the linguistic form, its abstract and de-contextualized.6. 所指意義ReferenceIt means what a linguistic form refers to in the real, physical world, it deals with the relationship between the linguistic element and the non-ling

57、uistic world of experience.7. 同義詞SynonymyIt refers to the sameness or close similarity of meaning or we can say that words are close in meaning are called synonyms.8. 多義詞PolysemyIt refers to different words may have the same or similar meaning, the same one word may have more than one meaning.9. 同音(形 異義HomonymyIt refers to the phenomenon that words have different meanings have the same form, i.e, different words are identical in sound or spelling, or in both.10. 同音異義HomophonesIt refers to two wor