語言學教程課后答案定義歸納

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上胡壯麟語言學教程（第三版）-課后習題單詞定義歸納Chapter I Invitation to Linguistics1. Define the following terms:定義特征design feature:the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animals. 功能function: the role language plays in communication (e.

2、g. to express ideas, attitudes) or in particular social situations (e.g. religious, legal).共時的synchronic: said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical point in time.歷時的diachronic:said of the study of development of language and languages over time.規(guī)定式prescriptive: to make authoritarian

3、 statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.描寫式descriptive: to make an objective and systematic account of the patterns and use of a language or variety.任意式arbitrariness: the absence of any physical correspondence between linguistic signals and the entities to which they refer.二

4、層式duality:the structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (e.g. words) and meaningless segments (e.g. sounds, letters).移位式displacement:the ability of language to refer to contexts removed from the speakers immediate situation.寒暄phatic communion: said of talk used t

5、o establish atmosphere or maintain social contact.元語言metalanguage: a language used for talking about language.宏觀語言學macrolinguistics:a broad conception of linguistic enquiry, including psychological, cultural, etc.語言能力competence:unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rules in a language.語

6、言運用performance: the language actually used by people in speaking or writing.語言langue:the language system shared by a “speech community”.言語parole: the concrete utterances of a speaker.Chapter 2 Speech sounds1. Define the following terms:語音學phonetics: the study of how speech sounds are produced, trans

7、mitted, and perceived. It can be divided into three main areas of studyarticulatory phonetics, acoustic phonetics and perceptual/auditory phonetics.發(fā)音語音學articulatory phonetics: the study of the production of speech sounds, or the study of how speech sounds are produced/made.音系學phonology:the study of

8、 the sound patterns and sound systems of languages. It aims to discover the principles that govern the way sounds are organized in languages, and to explain the variations that occur.發(fā)音器官speech organs:those parts of the human body involved in the production of speech, also known as vocal organs.帶聲器官

9、voicing:the vibration of the vocal folds. When the vocal folds are close together, the airstream causes them to vibrate against each other and the resultant sound is said to be voiced. When the vocal folds are apart and the air can pass through easily, the sound produced is said to be voiceless.國際音標

10、International Phonetic Alphabet: a set of standard phonetic symbols in the form of a chart (the IPA chart), designed by the International Phonetic Association since 1888. It has been revised from time to time to include new discoveries and changes in phonetic theory and practice. The latest version

11、has been revised in 1993 and updated in 1996.輔音consonant: a major category of sound segments, produced by a closure in the vocal tract, or by a narrowing which is so marked that air cannot escape without producing audible friction.元音vowel:a major category of sound segments, produced without obstruct

12、ion of the vocal tract so that air escapes in a relatively unimpeded way through the mouth or the nose.發(fā)音方式manner of articulation:ways in which articulation of consonants can be accomplished(a) the articulators may close off the oral tract for an instant or a relatively long period; (b) they may nar

13、row the space considerably; or (c) they may simply modify the shape of the tract by approaching each other.發(fā)音部位place of articulation: the point where an obstruction to the flow of air is made in producing a consonant.基本元音Cardinal Vowels:a set of vowel qualities arbitrarily defined, fixed and unchang

14、ing, intended to provide a frame of reference for the description of the actual vowels of existing languages.半元音semi-vowel: segments that are neither consonants nor vowels, e.g. j and w.滑元音vowel glide:vowels that involve a change of quality, including diphthongs, when a single movement of the tongue

15、 is made, and triphthongs, where a double movement is perceived.協(xié)同發(fā)音coarticulation: simultaneous or overlapping articulations, as when the nasal quality of a nasal sound affects the preceding or following sound so that the latter becomes nasalized. If the affected sound becomes more like the followi

16、ng sound, it is known as anticipatory coarticulation; if the sound shows the influence of the preceding sound, it is perseverative coarticution.音位phoneme:a unit of explicit sound contrast. If two sounds in a language make a contrast ,between two different words, they are said to be different phoneme

17、s.音位變體allophone: variants of the same phoneme. If two or more phonetically different sounds do not make a contrast in meaning, they are said to be allophones of the same phoneme. To be allophones, they must be in complementary distribution and bear phonetic similarity.同化現(xiàn)象assimilation: a process by

18、which one sound takes on some or all the characteristics of a neighboring sound, a term often used synonymously with coarticulation. If a following sound is influencing a preceding sound, it is called regressive assimilation; the converse process, in which a preceding sound is influencing a followin

19、g sound, is known as progressive assimilation.剩余位置條件Elsewhere Condition: The more specific rule applied first. It is applied when two or more rules are involved in deriving the surface form from the underlying form.區(qū)別特征distinctive features:a means of working out a set of phonological contrasts or op

20、positions to capture particular aspects of language sounds, first suggested by Roman Jacobson in the 1940s and then developed by numerous other people.音節(jié)syllable: an important unit in the study of suprasegmentals. A syllable must have a nucleus or peak, which is often the task of a vowel or possibly

21、 that of a syllabic consonant, and often involves an optional set of consonants before and/or after the nucleus.最大節(jié)首原則Maximal Onset Principle: a principle for dividing the syllables when there is a cluster of consonants between two vowels, which states that when there is a choice as to where to plac

22、e a consonant, it is put into the onset rather than the coda.重音stress: the degree of force used in producing a syllable. When a syllable is produced with more force and is therefore more prominent, it is a stressed syllable in contrast to a less prominent, unstressed syllable.語調(diào)intonation:the occurr

23、ence of recurring fall-rise patterns, each of which is used with a set of relatively consistent meanings, either on single words or on groups of words of varying length.聲調(diào)tone: a set of fall-rise patterns affecting the meanings of individual words.Chapter 3 Lexicon1. Define the following terms 語素mor

24、pheme:the smallest unit of language in terms of the relationship between expression and content, a unit that can not be divided into further smaller units without destroying or drastically altering the meaning, whether it is lexically or grammatically. Take for example, the word tourists contains th

25、ree morphemes. There is one minimal unit of meaning, tour, another minimal unit of meaning ist (meaning “person who does something), and a minimal unit of grammatical function s (indicating plural). Meanwhile, from the above example, we can further classify morphemes into different types on differen

26、t dimensions: (a) free morphemes, which can stand by themselves as single words, e.g. tour in tourist, and bound morphemes, which cannot normally stand alone, but which are typically attached to another form, e.g. ist, -s. (b) lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. Both of these two types of mo

27、rphemes fall into the “free” category. The first category is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The second category consists largely of the functional words in the language such as conjunctions, prepositions, a

28、rticles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it. (c) derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. These two types of morphemes fall into the “bound” category. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often employed to produce words of a different grammati

29、cal category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the grammatical function of a word. For example, both

30、old and older are adjectives. The er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. As a useful way to remember the different categories of morphemes, the following chart can be used: It should be pointed out, morphemes may also be divided into roots

31、 and affixes, the root being that part of a word structure which is left when all the affixes have been removed. Root morphemes may be bound or free, and are potentially unlimited in number in a language; Affixes are bound morphemes and limited in number. For instance, in try, tries, trying, tried,

32、the root is try, and s, -ing, -ed are affixes. 復合詞compound:refers to the words that consist of more than on lexical morpheme or the way to join two separate words to produce a single form, such as classroom, mailbox, fingerprint, sunburn. In terms of the word class of compounds, there are Noun compo

33、unds (e.g. daybreak), Verb compounds (e.g. brainwash), Adjective compounds (e.g. dutyfree) and Preposition compounds (e.g. throughout). Meanwhile compounds can be further divided into endocentric compound and exocentric compound in terms of its structural organization. The head of a nominal or adjec

34、tival endocentric compound is d is derived from a Verb, and it is usually the case that the first member is a participant of the process verb. Consider the following two examples: self-control and virus-sensitive. The exocentric nominal compounds are formed by V+N, V+A, and V+P, whereas the exocentr

35、ic adjectives come from V+N and V+A. Here are some examples: Nouns scarecrow playboy cutthroat Adjectives take home Lackluster breakneck屈折變化inflection: is the manifestation of grammatical relationship through the addition of inflectional affixes such as number, person, finiteness, aspect and cases t

36、o which they are attached.詞綴affix: the collective term for the type of formative that can be used when added to another morpheme. Affixes in a language are limited in number, and are generally classified into three subtypes, namely, prefix, suffix, and infix, depending on their position around the r

37、oot or stem of a word. Prefixes are these affixes that have be added to the beginning of a word (e.g. un- in unhappy); suffixes are those added to the end of a word (e.g. ish in foolish); infixes, as a third type of affix, is not normally found in English but fairly common in some other languages. A

38、s the term suggests, it is an affix that is incorporated inside another word. It is possible to see the general principle at work in certain expressions, occasionally used in fortuitous or aggravating circumstances by emotionally aroused English speakers: Absogoddamlutely! And Unfuckingbelievable! I

39、n fact, all affixes are bound morphemes.派生詞derivation: is the most common word-formation process to be found in the production of new English words. It is accomplished by means of a large number of affixes of English language, and shows the relationship between roots and affixes. For example: mis +r

40、epresent à misrepresent, joy+ ful à joyful, sad + ness à sadness. In contrast to inflection, derivation can make the word class of the original word either changed or unchanged, e.g. dis + card à discard (changed) and dis + obey à disobey (unchanged). It is worth mentioning

41、that word forms that come from derivation are relatively large and potentially open. Take the prefix pre- for example. One can easily list hundreds of words from any dictionary, such as preamble, pre-arrange, precaution, precede, precedent, precept, precinct, precognition, precondition, precursor, a

42、mong many others詞根root: refers to the base form of a word that cannot be further analyzed without loss of identity. That is to say, it is that part of the word that is left when all the affixes are removed. In the word internationalism, after the removal of inter-, -al and -ism, the left part is the

43、 root nation. Apparently, all words contain a root morpheme. And roots can be further classified into free root morpheme and bound root morpheme. First, free root morphemes are those that can stand by themselves and are the base forms of words, such as black in black, blackbird, blackboard, blacksmi

44、th. A language may contain many morphemes of this type. Second, there are relatively a few bound root morphemes in English, such as -ceive in receive, perceive, and conceive; -mit in remit, permit, commit, and submit; -tain in retain, contain, and maintain; -cur in incur, recur, and occur, etc. Thir

45、d, a few English roots may have both free and bound variants. For instance, sleep (/sli?p/) and child (/t?aild/) are free root morphemes, whereas slep- in the past tense form of sleep, i.e. slept and child- in the plural form of child, namely children, cannot exist by themselves, and are hence bound

46、. 語素變體allomorph:A morpheme, like a phoneme, is a linguistic abstraction, which must be realized as certain phonetic forms or variants in different phonetic environments. Each of the phonetic forms or variants is a morph. A single morpheme may be phonetically realized as two or more morphs. The diffe

47、rent morphs that represent or which are derived from one morpheme is called the allomorphs of that morpheme. In practice, some morphemes have a single form in all contexts, such as “dog” “bark” etc. In other instances there may be considerable variation, that is to say, a morpheme may have alternate

48、 shapes or phonetic forms. For example, the plural sememe in English can be represented by the voiceless /s/, the voiced /z/, the vowel-consonant structure /?z/, the diphthong /a?/ found in the irregular form of /ma?s/, the nasal sound /n/ in /?ksn/, the long vowel /i/ in /ti?/ and the zero form /i?

49、/ of /?i?p/ and others. Each would be said to be an allomorph of the plural morpheme. 詞干stem: is any morpheme or combinations of morphemes to which an inflectional affix can be added. For example, friend- in friends, and friendship- in friendships are both stems. The former shows that a stem may be

50、the same as a root, whereas the latter shows that a stem may contain a root and one, or more than one, derivational affix. 黏著語素bound morpheme: refers to those which can not occur alone and must appear with at least one other morpheme. For example, the word distempered has three morphemes, namely, di

51、s-, temper, and -ed, of which temper is a free morpheme, dis- and -ed are two bound morphemes. There are two types of morphemes which fall into the “bound” category: derivational morphemes and inflectional morphemes. The derivational morphemes are used to make new words in the language and are often

52、 employed to produce words of a different grammatical category from the stem. For example, the addition of the derivational morpheme ness changes the adjective good to the noun goodness. In contrast, inflectional morphemes never change the grammatical category of a word, but indicate aspects of the

53、grammatical function of a word. For example, both old and older are adjectives. The er inflection simply creates a different version of the adjective, indicating a comparative degree. 自由語素free morpheme: refers to those which may occur alone or which may constitute words by themselves. In English cat

54、s, cat is free since cat is a word in its own right. Free morphemes therefore necessarily constitute mono-morphemic words. So all mono-morphemic words are free morphemes. Poly-morphemic words/compound words may consist wholly of free morphemes, and English aircraft, godfather and housewife. As for i

55、ts subtypes, free morphemes can be further divided into lexical morphemes and functional morphemes. The former is that set of ordinary nouns, adjectives and verbs that carry the “content” of message we convey, e.g. house, long and follow. The latter consists largely of the functional words in the la

56、nguage such as conjunctions, prepositions, articles and pronouns, e.g. but, above, the and it.詞位lexeme: in order to reduce the ambiguity of the term word, lexeme is postulated as the abstract unit underlying the smallest unit in the lexical system of a language which appears in different grammatical

57、 contexts. For example, “write” is the lexeme of the following set of words: write, writes, wrote, writing, written.詞匯lexicon:refers to the whole vocabulary of a language as against grammar of a language.語法詞grammatical word: refers to those which mainly work for constructing group, phrase, clause, c

58、lause complex, or even text, such as, conjunctions, prepositions, articles, and pronouns. Grammatical words serve to link together different content parts. So they are also known as Function Words. 詞匯詞lexical word: refers to those which have mainly work for referring to substance, action and quality

59、, such as nouns, verbs, adjectives, and adverbs. Lexical words carry the main content of a language. So lexical words are also known as Content Words.封閉類closed-class:A word that belongs to the closed-class is one whose membership is fixed or limited, such as pronouns, prepositions, conjunctions, articles, and others. One cannot easil