語(yǔ)言學(xué)教程胡壯麟考研筆記(共8頁(yè))

1、精選優(yōu)質(zhì)文檔-傾情為你奉上Unit 1 invitations to linguistics1. Design features of language:The design features: the distinctive features of human language that essentially make human language distinguishable from languages of animalsl ArbitrarinessØ The absence of any physical correspondence between linguist

2、ic signals and the entities to which they refer. / The forms of linguistic signs bear no natural relationship to their meaning.ü Arbitrariness relationship between the sound of a morpheme and its meaning.(e.g. murmurous / murderous)ü Arbitrariness at the syntactic levelFunctionalists hold

3、that the most strictly arbitrary level of language existed in the distinctive units of sounds by which we distinguish pairs of words like pin and bin, or fish and dish.(e.g. As the night fell, the wind rose.)ü Arbitrariness and conventionConvention: it is an idiom-it is a convention to say thin

4、gs like this way.(When in Rome, do as romans do.)l Duality:Ø The structural organization of language into two abstract levels: meaningful units (words and phrase) and meaningless segments(sound and letters)Ø The secondary units are meaningless and the primary units are meaningful.ü Tr

5、affic light system does not have duality: it cannot be divided into meaningless units, so it only has primary level like animals. Ø A large number of meaningful units can be formed out of a small number of elements-productive power.l CreativityØ The speaker is able to combine the basic lin

6、guistic units to form an infinite set of sentences, most of which are never before produced or heard.Ø Its potential to create endless sentences. (recursiveness)l DisplacementThe ability of language enable their users symbolize objects, events an d concepts which are not present (in time and sp

7、ace) at the moment of communication.2. Origin of languagel The “bow-bow” theory: imitating of animal calls in wild environmentl The “pooh-pooh” theory: they utter instinctive sounds of pain, anger and joy.l The “yo-he-yo” theory: as primitive people worked together, they produced some rhythmic grunt

8、s which gradually developed into chants and then into language.3. Functions of language：l Informative function: to tell and to give something outl Interpersonal function: (人際功能) by which people establish and maintain their status in a society. Ø For example, the way in which people address othe

9、rs and refer to themselves. Dear Sirl Performative function: the performative function of language is primarily to change the social status of persons, such as in marriage ceremonies, the sentencing of criminals and cursing of enemiesl Emotive function: (also called expressive function) uttered with

10、out any purpose of communicating to others, but essentially a verbal response to a persons own feeling.l Phatic communion:Ø It refers to social interaction of language.Ø Broadly speaking it refers to expressions that help define and maintain interpersonal relations, such as slangs, jokes,

11、jargon.l Recreational function: The use of language for hearty joy of using it.l Metalingual function:Ø Our language can be used to talk about itself. (self-reflexive) we human beings can talk about talking and can think about thinking.Ø For example: To be honest, to make a long story shor

12、t, in a word.4. Main branches of linguistics:l PhoneticsIt studies speech sound, including the production of speech, the description and classification of speech sounds, words and connected speechl PhonologyØ It is the study of a subset of those sounds that constitute language and meaning.Ø

13、; It studies the rules governing the structure, distribution, and sequencing of speech sounds and shape of syllables.l MorphologyØ It is concerned with the internal organization of words.Ø For example: The dog sees the rabbit. In English, different order gives different meaning. However, i

14、n Latin and also in Russian, dog and rabbit take on some morphological endings depending on whether they are subject or object. So, different sentence order did not change its meaning.l SyntaxØ It is about principles of forming and understanding correct English sentences.Ø For example:

15、2; The children watched the firework from the hill.ü The children watched the firework from the hill.l SemanticsØ Examine how meaning is encoded in a language.Ø It is not only concerned with meanings of words as lexical items, but also with levels of language below words and above it,

16、 such as meaning of morphemes and sentences.l PragmaticsThe study of meaning in context.5. Macrolinguisticsl Psycholinguistics (心理語(yǔ)言學(xué))It investigates the interrelation of language and mind, in processing and producing utterances and in language acquisition for example.l Sociolinguistics （社會(huì)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）It is

17、 the study of the characteristics of language varieties, the characteristics of their functions, and the characteristics of their speakers as these three constantly interact and change within a speech community.l Anthropological linguistics （人類(lèi)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）Anthropological linguist are concerned with the emer

18、gence of language and also the divergence of language over thousands of years.l Computational linguistics （計(jì)算機(jī)語(yǔ)言學(xué)）The use of computers to process or produce human language.6. Important distinctions in linguisticsl Descriptive and descriptiveØ The distinction lies in prescribing how things are a

19、nd how things ought to be.Ø Descriptive: ü To make an objective and systematic account of patterns and use of a language or variety.ü People dont say X. Ø Prescriptive: ü To make authoritarian statement about the correctness of a particular use of language.ü Dont say X

20、l Synchronic and diachronicØ Synchronic (共時(shí))ü Said of an approach that studies language at a theoretical “point” of time.ü For example: the structure of Shakespeares English. Ø Diachronic （歷時(shí)）ü Said of the study of development of language and languages over time.ü For e

21、xample: Pejorative sense development in Englishl Langue and paroleØ Langueü The language system shared by a “speech community”Ø Paroleü The concrete utterances of a speaker. l Competence and performanceØ Competenceü Unconscious knowledge of the system of grammatical rul

22、es in a language.Ø Performanceü The language actually used by people in speaking and writing.Unit 2 phonetics and phonology1. The major branches of phonetics:l Articulatory phonetics The study of production of speech soundsl Auditory phoneticsIt studies the sounds from the hearers point of

23、 view, that is, the sound perceived by the hearer.l Acoustic phoneticsIt studies the physical properties of the sounds produced in speech.2. Speech organsl Inside the throat: pharynx and larynxl Inside the oral cavity: upper lip, upper teeth, the alveolar ridge, the hard palate and the soft palate,

24、and the uvula.l The bottom part of the mouth contains the lower lip, lower teeth, the tongue and the mandible(下頷).l In phonetics: the tongue is divided into five parts: the tip, the blade, the front, the back and the root.l In phonology: the tongue is divided into coronal(tip and blade), dorsal(fron

25、t and back) and radical(root)3. Manner of articulation (a picture is added here)l Stops: The sound is produced when the obstruction is complete, and the sound is produced when the obstruction audibly released and the air passing out against.l NasalsThe sound is produced by lowing the soft palate and

26、 the air pass through the nose.l Fricatives:It refers to sound produced when an obstruction is partial and the air is forced through a narrow passage in the mouth, so as to cause definite local frication at the point.l Affricatives It refers to the sound produced when obstruction, complete at first,

27、 is released slowly with the frication resulting from partial obstruction.l ApproximantsOne articulator is close to another but without the vocal tract narrow to cause a turbulent.l LateralsThe obstruction of airstream is at a point along the center of oral tract, with incomplete closure between one

28、 or both sides of the tongue and the roof of the mouth.l TrillIt is produced when an articulator is set vibrating by air stream, such as /r/ in red.l TapWhen the tongue makes a single tap against the alveolar ridge to produce only one vibrate.l FlapIt is produced when the tip of the tongue curled up

29、 and back in a retroflex gesture an then striking the roof of the mouth in the post-alveolar region as it returns to its position behind the lower front teeth.4. Place of articulation:It refers to wherein the vocal tract there is approximation, narrowing or the obstruction of the air.5. Vowels:Vowel

30、s are sounds produced without obstruction, so no turbulence or a total stopping of the air can be perceived.6. The criteria of the vowel ( a picture is added here)l The height of the tongue raising: high, mid, lowl The position of highest part of the tongue: front, central, backl The length or tense

31、ness of the tongue: long or short; tense or laxl The shape of the lips: rounded and unrounded7. Monophthongs diphthongs and tripthongsl They are those pure vowels with unchanging qualityl If a single movement from one element of the tongue is involved, the combining vowel is called diphthongsl If tw

32、o movements from one element to second, from the second to the third of the tongue is involved, the combining vowel is called tripthongs.8. CoarticulationIt refers to the process of simultaneous or overlapping articulations when sounds show the influence of their neighbors.l Anticipatory coarticulat

33、ion: the sound becomes more like the following sound, such as in the case lambl Preservative coarticulation: the sound becomes more like the preceding sound, such as in the case of map9. Narrow transcription and broad transcription:l Narrow transcription: we try to symbolize all the possible speech

34、sounds, including even the minutest shades of pronunciation. It contains a set of diacritics.10. Phonological theory: l Minimal pairsØ When two different forms are identical in every way except for one sound segment in the same place in strings, the two words are said to form a minimal pair

35、6; For example, pin and pen; tip and tapl Phone, phoneme, and allophonesØ Phone: it is a basic unit of phonetic study, and it is a minimal sound segment that human speech organs can produce.Ø Phoneme: it is a basic unit of phonological study, and it is an abstract collection of phonetic fe

36、atures. For example, /t/ /d/Ø The different realization of the same phoneme in different phonetic environment are called the allophones of that phoneme. For example, ph l Complementary distributionØ When two or more than two allophones of the same phoneme do not distinguishen meaning and n

37、ever occur in the same context, then the allophones are said to be in complementary distribution.Ø p and ph; l and ll Free variationØ If two sounds occurring in the same environment do not contrast, that is, the substitution for another does not produce a different word form, but merely a

38、different pronunciation of the same word, then the two sounds are in free variation.Ø For example, in cup the /p/ and /p/l Phonemic contrast and distinctive featuresØ Phonetic contrast: if two phonemes occurs in a minimal pair occur in the same place and distinguish meaning, these two phon

39、emes are said to be in phonemic contrast.Ø Distinctive features: they are those features which are phonologically revant properties and can distinguish meaning, for example, plosiveness, bilabiality, and voicelessness in English phonology. Some of the major distinctions include consonantal, son

40、orant, nasal and voiced. These are known as binary features which have two values denoted by “+” and “-”11. Phonological processl Any phonological process must has aspects to it:Ø A set of sound to undergo the processØ A set of sound produced by the processØ A set of situation in which the process appliesl Assimilation:Ø Regressive assimilation: a following sound is i